AGRICULTURE.
Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock).Modern agriculture extends well beyond the traditional production of food for humans and animal feeds.
Other agricultural production goods include timber, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial chemicals (starch, sugar, alcohols and resins), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax), fuels (methane from biomass, ethanol, biodiesel), cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade, and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine).
Agricultural chemistry includes the application of chemical fertilizer, chemical insecticides, and chemical fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.
Beginning in the Western world, the green revolution spread many of these changes to farms throughout the world, with varying success.
Other recent changes in agriculture include hydroponics, plant breeding, hybridization, gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control.
Genetic engineering has yielded crops which have capabilities beyond those of naturally occuring plants, such as higher yields and disease resistance.
Modified seeds germinate faster, and thus can be grown in an extended growing area.
However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2006 – for the first time in history – the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide.
Also, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products).
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1.CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS IN INDIA:

India is the top producer of many crops in the world. There can be many ways to divide the types of crops (based on area, season, economic value etc.). Based on seasons, the crops in India are divided into three types: Rabi, Kharif and Zaid.

1. kharif crops ( June to September)
   The word “Kharif” is Arabic for autumn since the season coincides with the beginning of autumn or winter.Kharif season largely coincides with the Southwest monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice cotton jute job Bajra and Jowar is undertaken these crops are shown in June and harvested in September.
   Requires lot of water and hot weather to grow.The Kharif season differs in every state of the country but is generally from June to September. We sow the crop at the beginning of the monsoon season around June and harvest by September or October. Rice, maize, bajra, ragi, soybean, groundnut, cotton are all Kharif crops. 

Example: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Groundnut, Jute, Sugarcane, Turmeric, Pulses (like Urad Dal) etc.

2.Rabi crops (October to March) :

Rabi crops or rabi harvest are agricultural crops that are sown in winter and harvested in the spring in India and Pakistan. The term is derived from the Arabic word for “spring”, which is used in the Indian subcontinent, where it is the spring harvest (also known as the “winter crop”). The Rabi season begins with the onset of winter and October November and ends in March April .the low temperature during this season facilitates the cultivation of temperature and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram, and mustard.
Requires warm climate for germination of seeds and maturation and cold climate for the growth.

Example: Wheat, Oat, Gram, Pea, Barley, Potato, Tomato, Onion, Oil seeds (like Rapeseed, Sunflower, Sesame, Mustard) etc.

1. Zaid crops (April to june).
   There is a short season between Kharif and Rabi season in the months of March to July. In general, Zaid crops are crops that grow in this season. Also, these grow on irrigated lands. So we do not have to wait for monsoons to grow them. Many fruits and vegetables are cultivated in these periods. the cultivation is done on irrigated lands because monsoon rain are absent.they are Early maturing crops.
   Example: Cucumber, Bitter Gourd, Pumpkin, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Moong Dal etc.
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   How agriculture in south India is different from that in north India?
   In North India tropical crops are cultivated during summer .as winter temperature drops in North India temperate crops are cultivated during winter. this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in the southern parts of the country. the temperature is high enough to grow tropical plants crops during may during any period in the year, provide soil moisture is adequate. in South India, same crops can be grown even thrice in an agriculture year.
   Another difference we saw between the north and the south was the role of the middlemen. Agents or commissioners in the south would show up to the field to offer a price and take the crop. Alternatively, the commissioners . Each farmer sells to one commissioner for each crop.
   2.MAJOR CROPS GROWN IN INDIA:
   India is top producer country of many crops. The major crops in India can be divided into four categories viz. Food grains (Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets and Pulses), Cash Crops (Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, and Oilseeds), Plantation Crops (Tea, Coffee, Coconut and, Rubber) and Horticulture crops such as Fruits and Vegetables.
   On the basis of seasons, the crops in India have been divided into Rabi, Kharif and Zaid crops.
   • Food crops:
   Rice

Rice is predominantly a Kharif or crop. It covers one third of total cultivated area of India. It provides food to more than half of the Indian population.
Rice is produced in almost all states. Top three producer states are West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Other rice growing states include Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat and Kashmir Valley.
Rice temperate in summer temperature . which rainfall 75 to 200 CM .soil is Alluvial soil major producers are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh ,Andhra Pradesh. in South India,it is cultivated during summer as well as winter. and coastal Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh rice crops are cultivated thrice in a year .in North India, it is cultivated on the in summer.

Wheat:

Wheat is the second most important crop of India after Rice. It’s a Rabi Crop. It is the staple food in north and north western India. It’s a winter crop and needs low temperature. Ideal temperature for wheat cultivation is between 10-15°C at the time of sowing and 21-26°C at the time of harvesting. Wheat thrives well in less than 100 cm and more than 75 cm rainfall. The most suitable soil for cultivation of wheat is well drained fertile loamy soil and clayey soil. Plain areas are most suitable. The wheat crop is highly mechanization oriented and may need less labour. Top three states producing Wheat are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Wheat temperate in winter temperature. rainfall is 15 to 75 CM. major producers are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab ,Haryana .it is cultivated only in North India.

1. MILLETS.
   In millets Bajra temperate in 25 to 35 degree celsius. rainfall is 30 to 50 cm.
   soils sandy soil red and black soil .dryland farming refers to the farming in regions without sufficient rainfall and inadequate irrigation facilities. major producers are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat.
   Barley temperate intemperature 10 to 15 degrees celsius .rainfall is 75 -200cm .soil light clay and Alluvial soil major producers are Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
   3.cash crops:
   Sugarcane belongs to bamboo family of plants and is indigenous to South Asia. In India, it is one of the most important Kharif crops. 

Cotton

Cotton is the most important fibre crop and cotton seed is used as a vegetable oil and a part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production. Cotton is a Kharif Crop and grows in tropical and subtropical areas. Cotton requires modest rainfall and in India, it is one of the predominant rainfed crops. Cotton requires uniformly high temperature (21°C to 30°C). It grows in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
Optimum soil for cotton is the Black soils of Deccan and Malwa plateau. Also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region. Cotton growing is known as less mechanised farming in India so needs cheap labour.  Main cotton producing states are Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Its temperature is 21 to 30 degree Celsius. Rainfall is 50-70cm.soil is deep black soil .grown even in alluvial soil or laterite soil .major producers are Gujarat ,Punjab, Maharashtra.

Jute

Jute is a tropical plant that requires hot and humid climate.
It is one of the most important natural fibres in terms of cultivation and usage.
Almost 85% of the world’s jute is cultivated in the Ganges Delta. Its temperature 24 to 35 degree celsius. rainfall is above 150 cm with 80 to 90% relative humidity .soil is alluvial soil .also grown in light Sandy or Clayey loams . major producers are West Bengal, Bihar ,Assam.

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is an important cash crop. India stands at 2nd position among all countries in the world in its production.
Sugarcane crop requires long rainy season of at least 7-8 months.
Traditional Sugarcane Production was in North India but it has also shifted to South India.
North India Sugarcane are of sub-tropical variety and so have low sugar content.
Also sugar factories have to remain shut in winter seasons in North India.
South India- Tropical Variety and coastal areas hence have high sugar content and high yield.
Its temperature is 22 to 26 degree Celsius. rainfall is 150 cm or irrigational facilities. High relative humidity. soil is Alluvial soil or black soil.major producers are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.

1. Plantation crops:

Tea

Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows in tropical and subtropical climates.
Tea is a labour intensive crop and 50% of the labourers are women.
It grows faster under light shade. Commercial cultivation of tea started in India from British era.
India is the 2nd largest producer and the largest consumer of tea in the world.
Tea plants require high rainfall but its roots cannot tolerate water logging. Hence, it requires sloppy areas.
Its temperature is 24 to 30 degree Celsius rainfall is 150 to 300 CM soil is forest soil rich in humus and iron content major producers are Assam West Bengal Tamilnadu Kerala it is grown on the Heels slope because standing water is harmful for the crop.

Coffee

Coffees are grown in shade and commonly with two tiers of shade.
Growing altitudes of coffee range between 1,000 to 1,500 m above sea level for Arabica (premier coffee), and 500 to 1,000 m for Robusta (lower quality).
Both varieties are planted in well-drained soil conditions that favour rich organic matter.
Coffee plantation is done along hilly slope.
Slopes of Arabica tend to be gentle to moderate, while Robusta slopes are gentle to fairly level. Its temperature is 15 to 28 degree Celsius .rainfall is 150 to 200 CM soil Is loamy, rich in humus, Iron and Calcium . oil producers are Karnataka Kerala .it is grown on the hill slopes because standing water is harmful for the crop.
Rubber.
Temperature is 25 to 35 degrees celsius. rainfall 300 CM which is well distributed throughout the year. Soil is well drained loamy, varying from laterite to declare loans the producers are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
Other crops:
maize is comes under other crops its temperatures 21 to 25 degree Celsius. rainfall is below 75 cm .soil is well drained Alluvial or red loamy. major producers are Bihar ,Uttar Pradesh Karnataka.
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3.LARGEST PRODUCING STATES:
There are some largest production States which are:
Rice -states are West Bengal Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh.
Wheat – states are Uttar Pradesh Punjab Haryana.
Coarse cereals – state are Rajasthan Karnataka Maharashtra.
Pulses – states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh ,Maharashtra.
Food grains- states are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab ,Madhya Pradesh.
Cotton- states are Gujarat,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh.
Sugar cane- Uttar Pradesh ,Maharashtra, Karnataka.
Jute – states are West Bengal ,Bihar ,Assam.
Soya bean – states are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Rapeseed seed and mustard- states are Rajasthan
Onion- Maharashtra
Pepper- Kerala
rubber- Kerala
coffee- Karnataka
tobacco -Gujarat
tea -Assam.

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1. SECONDARY ACTIVITIES:

Secondary Economic Activity is when natural resources are manufactured ,refined and processed to produce the finished goods. Activities involved in the secondary include metal working , smelting ,textile production , chemical production and engineering.
Steel is produced throughout the country in several steel industries.This is a popular form of employment but certain skills are required to run the machines and produce the finished good.
Another noticeably successful secondary economic activity within the country is the textile industry. This is mainly carried out by women and curtains , clothes blankets etc are made from natural resources .eg. wool.
The secondary sector is becoming more popular than the primary sector as new inventions and ideas are formed which allows more income to come into the country.

Classification of manufacturing industries:

Industries based on Size :

The amount of capital invested, the number of workers employed and the volume of production determine the size of the industry. Consequently, industries may be divided into household or cottage, small-scale and large-scale. The size of an industry is determined on the basis of investment, number of workers employed, amount of output produced ,on the basis of size, industry can be classified as follows:

• Household industries or cottage manufacturing:
cottage industries uses local raw material, simple tools ,and household labour or some part time labour from outside .these Industries Manufacture products for day to day life such as food items, mats ,and shoes. cottage industries are present mostly in developing countries.
The workers or artisans use local raw materials and simple hand tools to produce daily use goods in their houses with the assistance of their family or part-time job. Finished products can be used for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local markets, or used as barter. Property and transportation do not exercise much influence as this type of manufacturing has low economic significance, and most of the tools are made locally.
• Small scale industries:
these industries are distinguished from cotton industries on the g round by its production techniques and place of manufacture . This type of production uses local raw material, easy power-operated machines and semi-skilled workers. It provides employment and promotes regional purchasing power. Therefore, countries like India, Indonesia, China and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive small scale manufacturing to employ their population.
︎ separate place of manufacture other than household
︎ involvement of some sort of scientific production techniques .
small scale industries generate employment for the people in their native regions.
• Large Scale Manufacturing :
These industry requires a large amount of investment and high level of Technology and employment.
Large scale production involves a large market, several raw materials, tremendous energy, specialised operators, superior technology, large capital and assembly-line mass production. in West Europe large scale industries started around the beginning of 19th century at present this industry has moved to various part of the world.This kind of production developed in the last 200 years, in the UK, Europe and the northeastern U.S.A. Now it has spread in almost all over the world.
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industries based on Inputs or raw materials:
• Agro-based industries:

Agro-processing includes the processing of raw elements from the fields and the farms into finished products for rural and urban businesses.  these industries are located near the source of raw material because agriculture output is perishable in nature. once the raw material is processed, it can be transferred to distant areas without much risk of damage. for instance, Sugar Mills, processed foods Industry ,etc .are agro based.
Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, fruit juices, pickles, spices, beverages and oils fats and textiles , rubber, etc.
• Mineral based Industries – These industries use minerals as raw material.  these industries are located near the source of raw material .the raw materials used are bulky and may experience loss in value on account of their transportation. for instance ,iron and steel, copper, zinc, aluminium ,etc. are mineral based industries.Some enterprises utilise metallic minerals which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and steel industries but some utilize non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as copper, aluminium and jewellery industries..
• Chemical based industries:
This industries are preferably located near the places of High connectivity and markets.chemical minerals; for example, mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in the petrochemical industry. Slats, sulphur and potash, are some natural minerals used in industries. Chemical industries are dependent on raw materials obtained from coal and wood. Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are some examples of chemical-based industries.
• passengers vehicle industries:

Passenger vehicle industry is segmented on the basis of model type and fuel type. Model type segment is further categorized into hatchback, sedan and SUV. Among these segments hatchback model acquired maximum share of total passenger vehicles sales in India. This industry is situated in places that are connected to other places of the country for instance the Maruti plant in Gurgaon Ford plant in Chennai etc.
Industries on the basis of outputs:
• Intermediate goods industry:
Intermediate goods, producer goods or semi-finished products are goods, such as partly finished goods, used as inputs in the production of other goods including final goods. A firm may make and then use intermediate goods, or make and then sell, or buy then use them.  these goods are sold for further resale or for the production of Other goods .one example of an intermediate good is salt ,a product that is directly consumed and is also used manufacture food products. these industries are located near the source of raw material.
︎ consumer goods industry:
The consumer goods industries manufactured goods which are utilised by consumers directly. For example, industries producing bread and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, televisions, paper for writing, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries. These Industries produce goods for the conception of and customers, for example furniture ,passenger cars, Textiles ,etc.this industries are located near market or places that are connected to various parts of the country.

1. TERTIARY ACTIVITIES:

The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or entertainment. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry. However, the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods.It is sometimes hard to define whether a given company is part and parcel of the secondary or tertiary sector. Services are also defined as goods that cannot be seen or touched.
Factors responsible for location of services:
The location of service centre is determined by two important factors availability of consumers and skilled manpower to deliver services however Information Technology offers flexibility to deliver some of the services from even remote locations.
• Business process outsourcing or BPOs:
Business process outsourcing (BPO) is a method of subcontracting various business-related operations to third-party vendors.  BPO refers to the assignment of some industrial processes to other business units. this processes can be assigned to reduce cost, brings operational efficiency, etc.
Although BPO originally applied solely to manufacturing entities, such as soft drink manufacturers that outsourced large segments of their supply chains, BPO now applies to the outsourcing of services, as well. BPO are located in developing Nations due to the low cost of skilled human resources in these nations. in developing Nations ,BPO units are located in the urban areas on account of larger availability of skilled english-speaking workforce.
︎ Major trading centres of the world:
Some of the major trading centres of the world are Singapore ,Dubai ,new York, Mumbai etc. factors determining location of these trading Centre as follows:
• Location on important sea route .
• liberal policies of the government, which facilitate foreign trade .
• availability of financial services.
• easy conversion of currency.
• large investment of in Port facilities and shipping services.
factors governing location of industries:
☆ Access to market:
The existence of market for manufacture good is the most important factor in the location of industries. Market means people who have a demand for these goods and also have the purchasing power to be able to purchase from the seller At a place.
Some industries are preferably established near the final consumers for example furniture industry ,textile industry ,
Forticulture ,Horticulture etc.
Many industries are located near the large urban Centre because the concentration of population in those areas ensures readily available in market. Densely populated regions of south and South East Asia also provide large market such as aircraft manufacturing ,have a global market, the arms industry also have Global markets.
☆ Acess to raw materials:
Raw materials are one of the important factors in an industrial location. The mere location of industries itself may be determined by the availability or location of the raw materials. Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport raw material at the basic in requirement for manufacturing industries . Some raw material lose weight during processes but others do not. Some industries are preferably established near the source of raw materials especially when the raw material is bulky, perishable, and reduce in value with passage of time, for example sugar ,iron and steel, aluminium Industries ,etc.
Establish of iron and steel industry in Japan and cotton textile industry in Liverpool prove that the multinationals and countries with sufficient capitals can manipulate the mean of transportation in their favour and obtain raw material.
☆ Access to labour supply :

The availability of both unskilled and skilled, or technically qualified manpower, is an important factor in the location of industries.
Unskilled labour is easily available in urban locations due to large rural-urban migration. One characteristic feature of the labour factor is its mobility. The industrial belt around Mumbai attracts labour from all over the country. Some of the small scale industries traditionally associated with labour is glasswork (Ferozabad), brass-work (.Moradabad), utensils (Yamunanagar in Haryana), silk sarees (Varanasi), carpets (Mirzapur), etc.
Some business units are established near the source of large labour supply .as a result these units are set up in high population density areas.
☆ amount of investment:
It investment required a large ,very few units are established that cater to large Geography . these units are well connected to other parts of the country .for example iron and steel Industries, auto mobile industries etc. On the other hand, if investment required is a small, the units are established in various parts of the country to minimize the cost of transportation. for instance ,cotton textile industry, furniture industry etc.
︎ Government policy:

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A government policy statement is a declaration government’s political activities, plans and intentions relating to a concrete cause or, at the assumption of office, an entire legislative session. In certain countries they are announced by the head of government or a minister of the parliament. In constitutional monarchies this function may be fulfilled by the Speech from the Throne.
Government policies such as tax exemption and availability of infrastructure determines the location of industries.
︎ Ancillary industry:
Ancillary industry is an industry which has fixed investment in plant and machines that do not exceed.Ancillary industry manufactures parts, components, sub-assemblies, tools, intermediates, machines etc.
Any heavy industry depends on the machinery for its work to progress; the heavy industry always require support of ancillary industry. Ancillary industry exists near the main industry .for example, cycle parts industry is located in proximity to cycle industry.
Factors responsible for the location of iron and steel industry:
The establishment, development and concentration of iron and steel industry requires many things. It must collect raw material and power resources to produce things. It requires finances, machinery and labour to keep it running. It requires a market to sell its produce and above all it requires transport facilities. Raw materials used in the iron and steel industry are bulky in nature and lose weight during transportation .the output of the industry is required across the country .as a result , the industries located near the source of raw materials.Raw material and power resources are key components of the establishment, development and concentration of iron and steel industry. Many of the world’s famous steel centres of today have had their inception during the 19th and early 20th centuries at the places where iron ore and/or coal were available. all the raw materials and energy resources used to manufacture iron and steel are localised and impure or weight-losing material. So, the Weberian concept reveals that coal area is the most suitable location,as far as transport costs are concerned.
Initially, iron and steel plants had a clear tendency towards coal areas. But, with the passage of time, new technologies were introduced which were, on the one hand, fuel saving, and on the other hand, the requirement of iron ore volume also came down. Most of the iron and steel Industries concentrated in crescent shaded region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh Nagar and Odisha, Jharkhand, and western West Bengal. these reasons is rich in iron or cool and other essential raw material such as water, power etc.
︎Tisco ,Jharkhand
︎Rourkela, Odisha
︎ Bhilai,Chhattisgarh
︎Durgapur ,West Bengal
The energy to these plants is provided from other resources such as hydroelectricity .for instance ,the Visvesvaraya iron and steel plant in Bhadravathi ,Karnataka, is supplied electricity from the Jog Falls hydroelectric power plant.
apart from large plant small plants convert scrap into iron and steel products. this plant are located throughout the country .
factors responsible for the location of cotton textile industry:

Cotton is a non perishable raw material with no weight loss when converted to yarn or textile and so proximity to source of raw materials doesn’t bring any benefit. The factors that determine the location of cotton industry are labor, proximity to markets, energy supply and availability of capital or finance. Climate to is a factor as dry climate not suitable for mass production as cotton threads break and manually have to be joined again.Similar factors led to the development of textile industry in Mumbai and Japan. Both regions had black cotton soil needed for manufacturing short, medium staple cotton. Port location in both these areas made import of cotton staple and export of finished textiles suitable. The presence of skilled labor in Mumbai and connectivity via road, rail and sea was present. Energy needs were met and water too was present for dyeing and bleaching. Population in Mumbai was high so market for the textiles existed. The capital needed for investment was obtained by huge profits earned during American Civil War. As a result, other factors such as market ,availability of cheap labour ,and capital decide the location of the Cotton Industry. Thus, most of the cotton textile industry is located in urban areas .
the first Cotton Industry was established in 1854 in Mumbai because of the following reasons:
places
︎ nearness to market
︎ close proximity with Gujarat, which was the major cotton producing area
︎ availability of investment
︎ work force availability
at present, the cotton textile industry is located in every state of India.
However dependence on foreign colonies for raw materials cost it. After the World Wars the dominant position in the colonies was gone and market was no longer available. Cheaper textiles were obtained from other Asian colonies and Britain textiles industry no longer got larger orders. The Business moved towards more profitable businesses like light engineering, ship building and heavy chemicals.
factors responsible for the location of sugar industry:
Sugar industry is the second most important agro based industry after the Cotton Industry .India is the largest producer of sugarcane and sugar and contributes about 8% of the total sugar production in the world.Sugar industry is broadly distributed over two major areas of production- Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab in the north and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in the south.
South India has tropical climate which is suitable for higher sucrose content giving higher yield per unit area as compared to north India. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonal availability of raw materials. in 1903 ,sugar industry was set up for the first time in Bihar .at present, Maharashtra has emerged as a leading producer of sugar and produces more than one third of the total sugar produced in the country.
Sugar production commenced in 1920’s but it got industry status in late 20’s/early 30’s when India had 29 sugar mills producing just 100,000 tons of sugar. The industry, facing competition from imported sugar, sought tariff protection. Sugar production picked up under the Sugar Industry Protection Act passed in 1932 and country became self sufficient in 1935. Also cane pricing act was enforced to provide good cane price to farmer. This was followed by land reforms putting ceiling on land holdings to protect small farmers, formation of cane grower cooperatives and setting up of sugar mills jointly with farmers called as cooperative mills on ownership and sharing basis. Today this sector produces 60% of country’s production.
Sugarcane is a weight losing crop. the ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9% and 12% depending on the variety of sugarcane .the best recovery of sugar is dependent on the crushing of harvest sugarcane within 24 hours .sugar industries located near sugar cane farm.
factors responsible for the location of petrochemical industry:
Petrochemical industry is located near coastal regions because most of crude oil used in India is imported from abroad. Jamnagar , Gujarat ,is the largest oil refinery in India .it was established by Reliance Petroleum .In the petrochemical industry, the organic chemicals produced in the largest volumes are methanol, ethylene, propylene, butadiene, benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Ethylene, propylene, and butadiene, along with butylenes, are collectively called olefins, which belong to a class of unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n. Olefins, aromatics, and methanol are precursors to a variety of chemical products and are generally referred to as primary petrochemicals. Given the number of organic chemicals and the variety and multitude of ways by which they are converted to consumer and industrial products, this report focuses primarily on these seven petrochemicals, their feedstock sources, and their end uses. The inland Refineries processor mainly domestically produced crude oils ,which has little in quantity. Mathura ,Uttar Pradesh, is an important in refinery in India.
factors responsible for the location of IT industry:
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Information Technology in India is an industry consisting of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO).[1] The sector has increased its contribution to India’s GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to 7.7% in 2017.[2] According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US$180 billion in 2019,[3][4] with export revenue standing at US$99 billion and domestic revenue at US$48 billion, growing by over 13%. As of 2020, India’s IT workforce accounts for 4.36 million employees. The information technology workforce is connected to customers and suppliers throughout the world with the help of the internet. The share of IT software and services industry is nearly 2% of GDP. it is expected that the industry will grow further because of its ability to deliver services at low cost. the primary consideration of the location of IT industry is availability of a skilled personnel. as a result, it Industries preferably located in Metropolitan cities.

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Agriculture:

Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals .The practice of agriculture is also known as “farming”, while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture.Modern agriculture extends well beyond the traditional production of food for humans and animal feeds.Agricultural chemistry includes the application of chemical fertilizer, chemical insecticides, and chemical fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.
Beginning in the Western world, the green revolution spread many of these changes to farms throughout the world, with varying success.
Other recent changes in agriculture include hydroponics, plant breeding, hybridization, gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control.
Depending on the diverse climatic conditions, level of Technology ,investment,etc. various types of agriculture is practised in various regions:
Plantation agriculture .

A plantation is a large-scale estate meant for farming that specializes in cash crops. The crops that are grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, opium, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, fruits, rubber trees and forest trees. Protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations are located.
Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time.
It was introduced by Europeans in colonies situated within the tropical regions .the characteristics features of this type of agriculture are as follows:
︎ large size plantations
︎ large capital investment
︎ scientific methods of cultivation
︎ single crop specialisation
︎ labour intensive
︎ good system of transportation which links the plantation to factories
︎ strong technical and managerial support
Some of the coffee plantations in Brazil are still managed by Europeans .at present, most of these plantations are under the control of native governments.

Mixed Farming:
Mixed farming is a type of farming which involves both the growing of crops and the raising of livestock. This type of farming is practiced across Asia and in countries such as India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Afghanistan, South Africa, China, Central Europe, Canada, and Russia. 
Before horses were commonly used for haulage, many young male cattle on such farms were often not butchered as surplus for meat but castrated and used as bullocks to haul the cart and the plough.
It is practiced to enhance income levels from farms. It is also practised in developing countries as an insurance against crop failure.
︎ Subsistence agriculture:
Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families.In subsistence agriculture, farm output is targeted to survival and is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus. Planting decisions are made principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, and secondarily toward market prices. Tony Waters writes: “Subsistence peasants are people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace.
It is undertaken to fulfill the flood requirements of a household further it is of the following types :
1︎primitive subsistence agriculture:
In this type of Agricultural ,crops remains are cleared by fire .the cultivated patches very small, and cultivation is done with primitive tools.after three to five years the soil loses its fertility. the farmer clears the new forest and utilise its for cultivation. this type of agriculture is called slash and Burn agriculture . it is known by different names such as jhum in the North Eastern states of India ,Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia, milpa and Central America and Mexico.
Such gardens near the homestead often regularly receive household refuse, and the manure of any household, chickens or goats are initially thrown into compost piles just to get them out of the way. However, such farmers often recognize the value of such compost and apply it regularly to their smaller fields. They also may irrigate part of such fields if they are near a source of water.Thus farmers practicing ”slash and burn” agriculture are often much more sophisticated agriculturalists than the term “slash and burn” subsistence farmers suggests.
︎ Intensive subsistence agriculture:

In intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.Climate, with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot.intensive situation, farmers may even create terraces along steep hillsides to cultivate rice paddies. Such fields are found in densely populated parts of Asia, such as in the Philippines.  it involves the use of family labour and appropriate agriculture methodology such as farmyard manure to maintain fertility of soil. this productivity in this type of agriculture is not as highest as commercial gain cultivation ,but it is better than primitive subsistence agriculture. it is practised in a large part of India, including Ganga plains.

Extensive commercial grain cultivation:
Commercial grain farming is an extensive and mechanised form of agriculture.
This is a development in the continental lands of the mid-latitudes, which were once roamed by nomadic herdsmen.
In commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common commercially grown grains.
Major areas where commercial grain farming is pracised are temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares. Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.
It is undertaken on large farm with extensive use of machinery in operations ranging from ploughing to cultivation. this type of agriculture is carried in temperate grassland such as Eurasian steppes,American prairies ,argentinean pampas, South African velds ,and Australian downs.
Horticulture :

Horticulture is the science and art of the development, sustainable production, marketing, and use of high-value, intensively cultivated food and ornamental plants. Horticultural crops are diverse; they include annual and perennial species, delicious fruits and vegetables, and decorative indoor and landscape plants.
Horticulturists apply knowledge, skills, and technologies to grow intensively produced plants for human food and non-food uses and for personal or social needs. Their work involves plant propagation and cultivation with the aim of improving plant growth, yields, quality, nutritional value and resistance to insects, diseases and environmental stresses. They work as gardeners, growers, therapists, designers, and technical advisors in the food and non-food sectors of horticulture. Farms under Horticulture are small and are commonly located in areas near urban centres. it is both labour and capital intensive .special care required while growing crops. Highly investment is required not only in agriculture but also in storage and transportation of agriculture produce. Horticulture is popular in densely populated regions of North Western Europe, North Eastern USA, and Mediterranean regions.
Mediterranean Agriculture:
The term ‘Mediterranean agriculture’ applies to the agriculture done in those regions which are having Mediterranean type of climate.Mediterranean agriculture is unique because it is a mixture of diverse bio-cultural activities (both animal husbandry and crop farming) that has developed in five major world regions.
The natural setting that lends itself to Mediterranean agriculture is distin­guished by erratic rainfall, mild temperatures, irregular topography, and nearness to large water bodies. It is practiced in region surrounding the Mediterranean sea in Southern Europe and north Africa. viticulture or cultivation of grapes is speciality of Mediterranean agriculture. in Mediterranean agriculture, citrus fruits and vegetables are grown during winters .these fruits and vegetables caters to the heavy demand and western Europe and North America.
Floriculture :
Floriculture, branch of ornamental horticulture concerned with growing and marketing flowers and ornamental plants as well as with flower arrangement.floriculture is largely thought of as a greenhouse industry, though many flowers are cultivated outdoors in nurseries or crop fields. Both the production of bedding plants and the production of cuttings to be grown in greenhouses or for indoor use as houseplants are usually considered part of floriculture. it is undertaken on small Farms and is highly capital and Labour intensive. high level of investment is required in the input, labour ,machinery,etc. storage facilities are also costly. floriculture is popular in western Europe and northern america .Netherland specializes in growing flowers.

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SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY:

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND LOCATION FACTORS:

Economic activity:
Economic activity is the activity of making, providing, purchasing, or selling goods or services. Any action that involves producing, distributing, or consuming products or services is an economic activity.

Economic activities exist at all levels within a society. Additionally, any activities involving money or the exchange of products or services are economic activities.

Employees working in a factory and receiving wages, for example, are performing economic activities. Their employers are also economically active because they pay the workers and make and sell goods.

1.primary activity

A primary economic activity refers to any kind of economic activity that involves collecting, extracting or harvesting natural resources. There are two types of products that can be produced from primary economic activities.
Products that are harvested or extracted and can be directly consumed without being processed or converted into another form. E.g., Fruits, vegetables, and other agricultural or animal produce.
Products that are harvested or extracted but cannot be directly consumed without being processed. These products are used in other industries as raw materials and are processed to produce finished goods that can be used by people. E.g., Cotton is a raw material that cannot be used directly but can be processed to produce clothes. Similarly, wood cannot be used directly but can be used to build furniture and housing, among others.
The primary sector of the economy makes direct use of natural resources.
This sector includes agriculture, Forestry, fishing, and mining. various forms of primary activities are as follows:

● Hunting and Gathering:

Hunting and gathering was humanity’s first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human  history.  Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world.

Many cultures have also combined foraging with agriculture or animal husbandry. In pre-Columbian North America, for instance, most Arctic, American Subarctic, Northwest Coast, and California Indians relied upon foraging alone, but nomadic Plains Indians supplemented their wild foods with corn (maize) obtained from Plains villagers who, like Northeast Indians, combined hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In contrast, the Southwest Indians and those of Mesoamerica were primarily agriculturists who supplemented their diet by foraging.
Hunting and gathering are practiced by primitive societies living in Harsh climatic condition :
︎ low latitude areas such as Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, and northern fringe of Australia, and interior part of Southeast Asia.
︎ high latitude zones, which include Northern Canada, Eurasia etc.
hunting and gathering involve low level of investment and Technology. it is undertaken for basic needs such as food and clothing.
pastoralism.

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry, historically by nomadic people who moved with their herds. The species involved include various herding livestock, including cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses and sheep.
Pastoralism remains a way of life in many geographies including Africa, the Tibetan plateau, the Eurasian steppes, the Andes, Patagonia, the Pampas, Australia, and other many other places. As of 2019, 200-500 million people practice pastoralism globally, and 75% of countries have pastoral communities.
Pastoralist herds interact with their environment, and mediate human relations with the environment as a way of turning uncultivated plants like wild grass into food. In many places, grazing herds on savannas and woodlands can help maintain the biodiversity of the savannas and prevent them from evolving into dense shrublands or forests. Grazing and browsing at the appropriate levels often can increase biodiversity in Mediterranean climate regions.[4][5] Pastoralists shape ecosystems in different ways: some communities use fire to make ecosystems more suitable for grazing and browsing animals.
It refers to the domestication of animals. Pastoralism can be normalic or commercial:

• Nomadic herding:

Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism when livestock are herded in order to find fresh pastures on which to graze. True nomads follow an irregular pattern of movement, in contrast with transhumance where seasonal pastures are fixed. it is maintained that some, such as overgrazing and overstocking, may be overstated while others, such as climate change, mining and agricultural reclamation, may be under reported. In this context, there is also uncertainty as to the long term effect of human behavior on the grassland as compared to non-biotic factors.
Different animals are kept in different regions. in tropical Africa cattle are the most important live stock .in Sahara and asiatic deserts, sheep, goats ,and camels are reared. in the mountainous region of the Tibet and andes, the yaks are reared.
There are certain primitive community such as faddis,bhotiyas,and gujjars who prefer High mountains during summer and come to Plains along with cattle during winters. this process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summer and again from mountain pastures to plain area during winter are known as transhumance.
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•Commercial livestock rearing:

it is an organised activity Run along scientific lines and its capital intensive. it is practised over large permanent branches. the ranches are divided in to parcels .when the grass of one parcel is grazed, animal are moved to another parcel .
important animals include cattle ,sheep, goats, and horses. the products extracted from these animals include meat, wool, Hides .etc
commercial livestock farming is practised in the USA ,Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, etc.
Daily farming :

Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for long-term production of milk, which is processed (either on the farm or at a dairy plant, either of which may be called a dairy) for eventual sale of a dairy product.
It is rearing of animals for milk and milk based products .three main regions of commercial dairy farming are North Western Europe ,Canada ,and South Eastern Australia along with New Zealand. dairy farming is practised near urban and industrial centres, which serve as a market for diary production .dairy farming is both capital as well as labour intensive .it requires investment and transportation,refrigeration ,pasteurization and other processes. it also requires rigorous care in feeding and milking.

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NATURAL DISASTERS:
Natural disasters, such as hurricanes and flooding, cost money and resources that are needed to move the Commonwealth of The Bahamas forward towards improving the lives of residents, and measuring nation building against the UN 2030 agenda. The latter Sustainable Development Agenda includes 17 specific goals. It recognizes the specific challenges faced by the SIDS such as The Bahamas. Small islands can be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate and natural disasters caused by the numerous tropical storms that affect the Bahamas. The 2030 Agenda also encourages all United Nations Member States to “develop as soon as practicable ambitious national responses to the overall implementation of this Agenda.” major natural disasters in India include flood cyclone, droughts earthquake, and Tsunami. apart from this disaster, there are other disasters such as landslides, forest fires, avalanches ,and and cloudburst. India has witnessed a Paradigm shift in natural disaster. before the 1970 drought and famine has had the most service impacts in terms of number of people affected. at present, flood, cyclone, and earthquake account for 98% of the total deaths .it is estimated that 68% of India is prone to droughts, 60% of to earthquakes, 12% of floods ,and 8% to cyclones. overall, 85% of Indian territory faces potential hazards on account of natural disaster.

Levels of Disaster:

The severity or degree of damage can be further divided into three categories:

Small Scale Disasters: Small scale disasters are those that extend from 50 Kms. to 100 Kms. So this kind of disasters does not cause much damage.

Medium-scale disasters: Medium Scale disasters extend from 100 Kms to 500 Kms. These cause more damage than a small scale disaster. Moreover, they can cause greater damage if they occur in colonial states.

Large Scale Disasters: These disasters cover an area of more than 1000 Kms. These cause the most severe damage to the environment. Furthermore, these disasters can even take over a country if the degree is high. For instance, the wiping out of the dinosaurs was because of a large scale natural disaster.
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1. VARIOUS NATURAL DISASTER IN INDIA:

■ DROUGHTS: Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on monsoon .monsoon varies from year .some regions, specially where monsoon arrive in the the later part of the rainy season, are the most susceptible to droughts. Severe droughts occur in arid and semi- arid zones once in 8 to 10 years.
In the 1980s, two researchers uncovered more than 150 published definitions of drought which they published in the journal Water International. In an effort to bring some order to measuring drought, the scientists grouped the definitions into four basic categories: meteorological, hydrological, agricultural and socioeconomic. The first three descriptions track drought as a physical phenomenon. The last category deals with drought as a supply-and-demand problem, through the impacts of water shortfalls.
There are four main categories of drought:

Meteorological drought is specific to different regions, depending on the amount of yearly precipitation that’s average for that area. For example, the southwest portion of the United States averages less than 3 inches of precipitation per year, while the Northwest gets more than 150 inches per year, according to the U.S. Department of Interior. 

Agricultural drought accounts for the water needs of crops during different growing stages. For instance, not enough moisture at planting time may hinder germination, leading to low plant populations and a reduction in yield.

Hydrological drought refers to persistently low water volumes in streams, rivers and reservoirs. Human activities, such as drawdown of reservoirs, can worsen hydrological droughts. Hydrological drought is often linked with meteorological droughts.

Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for water exceeds the supply. Examples of this kind of drought include too much irrigation or when low river flow forces hydroelectric power plant operators to reduce energy production. 

■ Floods : floods occur in India because there is a high concentration of rainfall during the monsoon season. Embankments of rivers are not well developed. The flood prone rivers in India are Kosi Damodar and Brahmaputra. Apart from these rivers floods also occur in the West flowing rivers Narmada and Tapti as well as in the Deccan rivers common namely, Mahanandi, Krishna and Kaveri.Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry.
Some floods develop slowly, while others can develop in just a few minutes and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.
■ cyclones : it is a system of winds rotating inward to an area of low pressure, with and anticlockwise. or clockwise circulation. Cyclones are also called depressions. They bring strong winds, rainfall for snowfall. Cyclones may be classified as tropical cyclones and extra –
tropical has temperature cyclones .
Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars, Jupiter, and Neptune.Cyclogenesis is the process of cyclone formation and intensification Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones. These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies. Later in their life cycle, extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems. A cyclone’s track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream.
■ Earthquake :  An earthquake is the shaking or vibrating of the earth. An earthquake can range in sizes. As a result, some are so weak that they go unnoticed. But some are so strong that they can even destroy the whole city. Earthquakes can cause disruption of ground. Moreover, the can also cause landslides, avalanches, and Tsunami. However, the center of an earthquake falls mostly offshore.
Causes: These can cause of releasing of the energy. This release is from the core of the earth. Furthermore, the release of energy causes seismic waves. Rupturing of geological faults causes earthquakes. But other events like volcanic eruptions, landslides mine blasts can also cause it.
Types of Earthquake :

Tectonic Earthquake: The Earth’s crust comprises of the slab of rocks of uneven shapes. These slab of rocks are tectonic plates. Furthermore, there is energy stored here. This energy causes tectonic plates to push away from each other or towards each other.

Volcanic Earthquake: This Earthquake is related to volcanic activity. Above all, the magnitude of such Earthquakes is weak. These Earthquakes are of two types. The first type is Volcano-tectonic earthquake. Here tremors occur due to injection or withdrawal of Magma.

Collapse Earthquake: These Earthquakes occur in the caverns and mines. Furthermore, these Earthquakes are of weak magnitude. Undergrounds blasts are probably the cause of collapsing of mines.

Explosive Earthquake: These Earthquakes almost always occur due to the testing of nuclear weapons. When a nuclear weapon detonates, a big blast occurs. This results in the release of a huge amount of energy. This probably results in Earthquakes.

Effects of Earthquakes

First of all, the shaking of the ground is the most notable effect of the Earthquake. Furthermore, ground rupture also occurs along with shaking. This results in severe damage to infrastructure facilities.Another significant effect of Earthquake is landslides. Landslides occur due to slope instability. This slope instability happens because of Earthquake.
Earthquakes can cause soil liquefaction. 
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■ landslides:
Landslides: Three regions in India are prone to landslides: the Himalayas, the north eastern hill ranges and the Western ghats.
The roots of vegetation hold the soil tightly.thus,deforestation is a common cause behind land slides .a part from humans made reasons,other reasons,behind landslides are river erosions,heavy rainfall and seismic activity such as earthquakes.A landslide includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows. The biggest reason for alandslide is that there is a slope and material goes down the slope because of gravity. … rock and soil slopes made weak through saturation by snowmelt or heavy rains.
landslides occur on mountains and hilly areas. Moreover, landslides can cause destruction to man-made things in many ways.

Causes: Gravitational pull, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes can cause landslides. Moreover, soil erosion.

■ Avalanches:
An avalanche (also called a snowslide or snowslip) is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered when the forces on the snowpack exceed its strenght, causing failure of snowpack to hold snow. After initiation, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass.
Avalanches occur in the higher elevations of the Himalayas in the states of jammu and kashmir, Himachal pradesh, and Uttrakhand, which are covered with snow throught the year. Onaccount of global warming, avalanches are expected to increase in future.
Moreover, this causes extreme damage to anything that comes in its way. People who live in snowy mountains always have fear of it.

Causes: Avalanches takes places when there is a large accumulation of snow on the mountains. Moreover, they can also occur from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, the chances of surviving an avalanche are very less. This is because people die of hypothermia in it.

■ Forest fires:
Forest fires are major cause of forest degradation. Very heavy, heavy, frequent forest damages are noticed over 0.8%, 0.14%, and 5.16% of the forest areas , respectively. Thus, 6.17% of the forests are prone to serve fire damage. In absolute terms, out of the 63 million hectares of forests, an area of around 3.73 million hectares can be presumed to be affected by fires annually.
About90% of the forest fires in India are created by humans. The normal fire season in India is from February to mid-june. India mainly accounts for decidous forests, which are less dense in comparison to equatorial forests. Thus, forests fires are not a frequent phenomenon in India.
the forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.

Causes of Forest Fire

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Man made causes.

Natural causes – Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire to start.

Man made causes – Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.

Classification of Forest Fire

Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;
Natural forest fire.
Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through carelessness of people and
Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

■ Cloud burst:

Cloud burst refers to an extreme amount of rainfall that last no longer than a few minutes but is capable of creating flood like conditions. “Cloud burst ” is often used to describe a sudden heavy rainfall for a brief period.
According to meteorologist, rainfall equal to or greater than 10cm/h refers to a cloud burst. Cloud burst can take place in a region. Be its mountains or desert. Cloud burst occurs mainly in the Himalayan region. Cloud burst occurs when
One or more of the following conditions take place:
• warm moist air is suddenly exposed to a large amount of cold air, resulting in condensation.
• warm air undergoes sudden condensation when warm wind are required to rise due to the presence of Mountains .cloud burst are most frequent in high altitudes in the Himalayan region.
However, cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air, resulting in sudden condensation. At times, a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst. The term “cloudburst” arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst, resulting in rapid precipitation. Though this idea has since been disproven, the term remains in use.

■ Flash flood:
A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low lying areas. flash floods are distinguished from regular floods by a timescale of less than 6 h. it may be caused by heavy rain associated with a sever thunderstorm, or melt water from ice, or snow flowing over ice sheets. flash flood may occur after the collapse of a natural ice or Debris is Dam, or a human structure such as a dam.

The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water-content all determine just how quickly the Flash Flooding may occur, and influence where it may occur.

Urban Areas are also prone to flooding in short time-spans and, sometimes, rainfall (from the same storm) over an urban area will cause flooding faster and more-severe than in the suburbs or countryside. The impervious surfaces in the urban areas do not allow water to infiltrate the ground, and the water runs off to the low spots very quickly.

Flash Flooding occurs so quickly that people are caught off-guard. Their situation may become dangerous if they encounter high, fast-moving water while traveling. If people are at their homes or businesses, the water may rise quickly and trap them, or cause damage to the property without them having a chance to protect the property.

■ Tsunami:

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.[6] Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water.

Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide. For this reason, it is often referred to as a tidal wave, although this usage is not favoured by the scientific community because it might give the false impression of a causal relationship between tides and tsunamis. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called “wave train”.Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
Tsunami refers to the displacement of a large volume of water in the oceans on account of one or more of the following reasons:
• Earthquake
• volcanic eruptions in the oceans
• underwater explosions
• landslides in oceans
• melting of glaciers
• meteorite impacts
In 2004 India experience the massive Tsunami which caused destruction in the coastal areas. This
Tsunami was triggered by an earthquake.
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■ Heat wave:
Heat wave is declared if the maximum temperature rises above 40 degree Celsius for two consecutive days and is at least 4.5 degrees celsius above normal or when the maximum temperature exceed 45 degrees celsius for two days in hilly areas temperature must Rises above 30 degree Celsius with the departure of at least 4.5 degree Celsius.

A heat wave , is a period of excessively hot weather, which may be accompanied by high humidity, especially in oceanic climate countries. While definitions vary, a heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season. Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be called a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area.

The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century. Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures, thousands of deaths from hyperthermia, and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning. A heat wave is considered [extreme weather] that can be a natural disaster, and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body. Heat waves can usually be detected using forecasting instruments so that a warning call can be issued.
It can also be declared when the maximum temperature goes beyond 47 degrees celsius India saw 1100 heat related deaths in 2016 and more depth than 2200 in 2015.

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NATURAL VEGETATION:
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid. They have been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. We call this virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation. Now, we will look at some of the factors that impact the vegetation in our country.The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil. It is categorized into three broad categories: Forest, grassland and shrubs.

1. Different types of forests in India :-
   ■ tropical evergreen forest:these forests are found on the western slopes of western Ghats, parts of north east India, Andaman and nicobar islands, and lakshwdeep. In these regions, ther is humidity throughout the year and annual rainfall is more than 200cm . Important species are rose wood,mahogany, aini,ebony,etc. They occur across a wide range of climatic zones, and include trees such as coniferous and holly in cold climates,eucalyptus, Live oak, acacias and banksia in more temperate zones, and rainforest trees in tropical zones.
   ■ semi– evergreen forest: these forests are found in the less rainy areas of Evergreen forest. These forests have mixture of Evergreen and deciduous trees. The undergrowth provide and evergreen character to these forests . Species are white cedar, ,hollock, and kail.
   A distinct formation type, dominated by both evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved trees, flanking the rain forest in areas that have a marked dry season. Examples are found on all the continents with tropical territory, but are especially extensive in central and S. America, south-eastern Asia, and northern Australia. In Africa, savannah and related types of vegetation seem to have replaced much of this kind of forest.
   ■ tropical deciduous forests: this forests are the most widespread forest in India. They are also called tropical monsoon forest and grow in regions with annual rainfall between 50 and 200 CM. Teak,sal,shisham,hurra,mahua, amla,semul, kusum,and sandalwood are the common tree varieties of moist deciduous forests, whereas,tendu , palas,amaltas,bel,khair, axlewood are the common tree varieties of dry deciduous forests.
   They are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India- Eastern Slopes of the Western Ghats, the Tarai regions of the Himalayas, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
    Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are the common animals of these regions.
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   ■ Tropical thorn forest:
   The Thorn Forests are found in those states in our country where the average annual rainfall is too less or scanty. The semi-arid regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana & the dry parts of the Deccan plateau are very much suitable for the thorn forests to thrive well and even sustain themselves for a longer time-period. These forests exist in regions receiving less than 50 rainfall.these include semi arid and arid region of Rajasthan ,Northern Gujarat, and South western punjab.important species found are babool ,ber, wild date palm,khair,neem,khejri, and palas.

■ Montane forest :

montane forest A forest in the montane zone of tropical and middle latitudes. Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affect the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. Dense montane forests are common at moderate elevations, due to moderate temperatures and high rainfall.these forests represent different bio-geographical zones based on latitude and altitude of Mountains.in India, these forests are classified into the following types:
• northern montane forests :
These forest have vegetation ranging from tropical to polar type depending on altitude. The vegetation ranges from deciduous forests at the foothills, coniferous in the middle altitudes, alpine meadows at even higher altitudes ,and polar type of vegetation at the peaks.
• southern montane forests:
These forests are located within tropical regions and their altitudes is less in comparison to the Himalayas. As a result, the vegetation in these forests ranges from deciduous forests or rainforests at the foothills to coniferous forests at the peak.
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■ Mangroves:
A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. 
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud.
The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. India possess nearlyqq 7% of the world’s mangrove forests. Mangroves are considered important because they protect the coastline from incoming oceans waves and provide safe shelter to species living in that area.
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2 .FORESTS IN INDIA.
Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental resource. India is one of the ten most forest-rich countries of the world. Together, India and these other 9 countries account for 67 percent of total forest area of the world.India’s forest cover grew at 0.20% annually over 1990–2000, and has grown at the rate of 0.7% per year over 2000–2010,after decades where forest degradation was a matter of serious concern.

As of 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates India’s forest cover to be about 68 million hectares, or 22% of the country’s areaThe 2013 Forest Survey of India states its forest cover increased to 69.8 million hectares by 2012, per satellite measurements; this represents an increase of 5,871 square kilometers of forest cover in 2 years. However, the gains were primarily in northern, central and southern Indian states, while northeastern states witnessed a net loss in forest cover over 2010 to 2012. In 2018, the total forest and tree cover in India increased to 24.39% or 8,02,088 km2.It increased further to 24.56 percent or 807,276 square kilometres in 2019. For ecological balance ,the forests cover should be more than one -third of the total land area .only 15 states of India fulfil this criteria. In 1988,a new forests policy was launched to bring 33% of the total area of India under forest ,cover 80% of area under hills and 20% of area under plains.
Difference between forest cover and forest area:
Forest area:
The term ‘Forest Area’ generally refers to all the geographic areas recorded as forest
in government records. Recorded forest areas largely
comprises Reserved Forests and Protected Forests
which have been constituted under the provisions of Indian
Forest Act, 1927.the area recorded as forest in the government records is called a forest area or recorded forest area. the recorded forest area denotes the legal status of the land.
Forest cover:

It would be, therefore, quite useful if the area of forest
cover within and outside recorded forest area is known. This
will not only facilitate policy, planning and management of
forest areas by the State Forest Departments but also benefit
other agencies of Government, NGOs, private landowners and
village communities in tree planting efforts.
Mapping of forest cover within and outside the forest
areas can be done only if the geo-coded boundaries of the
recorded forests are available at an appropriate scale. There is no proper account of forest cover outside
recorded forest area. Since the SFDs are the custodians of the
details of the recorded forest areas, so if the boundaries of
such areas are made available, then the forest cover within
and outside the recorded forests can be determined.

︎ the mangrove cover in India has increased following acute conservation in the Sundarbans and bhitarkanika forest.
︎ although the total forest cover has seen an increase, around 2510km² of very dense and mid-dense forests have been wiped out since 2013.
︎ among all the states and union territories ,mizoram has the highest forest cover in terms of percentage with 88.93%of the total area, followed by lakshwdeep.
︎the top five states/unions territories with the maximum forest cover in percentage of their geographical areas are as follows: mizoram (88.93%)>lakshwdeep (84.56%) >andaman and nicobar islands (81.84%)>arunachal pradesh (80.30%)>nagaland(78.21%).
︎ the top five states with maximum forest cover are as follows:
︎ madhya pradesh >arunachal pradesh>chattisgarh>maharashtra>odhisa.

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4.RAINFALL : REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION:
The annual average rainfall of India is 89 CM over a long period average. LPA is calculated in India as the average of rainfall over a period of 50 years from 1951 to 2000. According to Indian Meteorological Department, normal monsoon is within the range of 89 CM Plus/ minus 4%.
If Earth’s surface were perfectly uniform, the long-term average rainfall would be distributed in distinct latitudinal bands, but the situation is complicated by the pattern of the global winds, the distribution of land and sea, and the presence of mountains. Because rainfall results from the ascent and cooling of moist air, the areas of heavy rain indicate regions of rising air, whereas the deserts occur in regions in which the air is warmed and dried during descent. In the subtropics, the trade winds bring plentiful rain to the east coasts of the continents, but the west coasts tend to be dry. On the other hand, in high latitudes the west coasts are generally wetter than the east coasts. Rain tends to be abundant on the windward slopes of mountain ranges but sparse on the lee sides.
the amount of vary significantly in different region within India.the rainfall pattern is influenced mainly on account of the following factor;
︎ pressure belt
︎physical features
︎the moisture carried by winds reduces from south to north and from east to west.
1.Area of high rainfall.
︎windward sides of western Ghats .
︎ meghalaya hills .mawsynram and cherrapunji are the wettest places in the world. These places recieve an annual average rainfall of nearly 1100 cm.
2.medium rainfall (100 -200 cm)
︎parts of southern Gujarat
︎eastern Tamil Nadu
︎odisha
︎jharkhand
︎bihar
︎madhya pradesh
︎ Eastern Uttar Pradesh
︎ West Bengal

1. Low rainfall (50-100 cm)
   ︎ Western Uttar Pradesh
   ︎ Punjab
   ︎ Haryana
   ︎ Eastern Rajasthan
   ︎ northen Gujarat
2. Inadequate rainfall (less than 50 cm)
   ︎ Telangana
   ︎ interior parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra
   ︎ Jammu and Kashmir
   ︎ Western Rajasthan
   ︎ Saurashtra region of Gujarat
   The part of Rajasthan that is east to the Aravallis sufficient rainfall and is fertile in nature. Eastern Rajasthan includes fertile Plains of Jaipur and Udaipur. The central part of Rajasthan is Bagar. The western most part of Rajasthan is Thar desert.

The Eastern part of Rajasthan is on the windward side of Aravallis, where as the central and western most part of Rajasthan are on the leeward side of the Aravallis.

The interior part ofMaharashtra ,Karnataka, and Telangana receives less than 50 cm rainfall because these regions are located in the rain Shadow region of the Western Ghats.

Variability of Rainfall:-
The degree to which rainfall amounts vary across an area or through time is an important characteristic of the climate of an area. This subject area in meteorology/climatology is called “rainfall variability.” There are two types (or components) of rainfall variability, areal and temporal. The study of the latter is important in understanding climate change.within india,the rainfall variability is higher in regions where south-west monsoon reaches later. Thus, regions with higher rainfall have less variability in rainfall and the regions with lesser rainfall have higher variability in rainfall.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA:-
India is often referred to as a country with tropical monsoon type of climate. The large size of India, its latitudinal extent, the presence of the Himalayas in the north, and the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal in the south have resulted in great variations in the distribution of temperature and precipitation in the subcontinent of India.A systematic study of the climatic divisions of India was attempted for the first time by H.E. Blandford—the first Director General of the Indian Meteorological Department—in 1889, who discovered that all types of climates found in the world are present within the subcontinent of India. This classification based on temperature and rainfall of a few selected stations of India was almost an overgeneralisation.
Primarily, Indian climate is mainly of the monsoon type, but India can be further divided into eight climatic regions:

1. Monsoon with short dry season: West Coast of India South of Goa on account of break in monsoon.
2. Monsoon with dry summers and wet winters: coast of Tamil Nadu.
3. Tropical Savannah: Central part of Peninsular plateau are Telangana and interior parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka.
4. Semi-arid climate: South parts of the Punjab and Haryana ,Central Rajasthan, and north- Eastern Gujarat.
5. Hot desert: Western Rajasthan.
6. Cold humid winter with short summer: north-east ,except plains of Assam.
7. Polar type: Jammu and Kashmir korma Uttarakhand Himachal Pradesh .
8. Monsoon with dry winters: remaining parts of the country.

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North east monsoon (season of Retreating monsoon).
the northeast monsoon is as permanent a feature of the Indian subcontinent’s climate system as the summer monsoon.
The India Meteorological Department recognises October to December as the time for the northeast monsoon.
During this period, rainfall is experienced over Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh, along with some parts of Telangana and Karnataka.
During summer in the southern hemisphere, the ITCZ shifts southwards.as a result, a high pressure belt emerges over land and a low pressure belt emerges over sea.the winds start blowing from land to sea. These winds blow from the north-east direction and are called the north east monsoon winds.as the north east winds blow from land .these winds are dry.
North east monsoon starts retreating from Western Rajasthan by the first week of September. By mid December ,the monsoon completely withdraws from the mainland . the weather becomes dry across India . during the Retreat of monsoon ,Tamil Nadu coast receives rainfall.
The Northeast monsoon winds are also highly regarded as a Retreat of monsoon. thiese wind blow in the opposite direction of the Southwest monsoon winds .The Tamil Nadu coast receives rainfall because retreating winds pass over the Bay of Bengal and gather moisture. when the wind reached the coast of Tamilnadu, these winds cause rainfall.

Upper air circulation or Jet stream.
The polar jet stream is formed by the deflection of upper air winds by coriolis acceleration (see Figure 7q-3 below). It resembles a stream of water moving west to east and has an altitude of about 10 kilometers. Its air flow is intensified by the strong temperature and pressure gradient that develops when cold air from the poles meets warm air from the tropics. Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large-scale Polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses. The Coriolis force is caused by the planet’s rotation on its axis. On other planets, internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams. The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells; the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells.
Jet streams are the winds blowing in the upper atmosphere at the height of 8 to 13 kilometre.two Jet streams effect India India’s climate:

1. Westerly jet stream:
   During winters ,westerly jet stream blows from west to east at a very high speed over the subtropical zone. the jet stream is bifurcated by the Himalaya ranges .the northern branch of this jet stream blows along the northern edge of the Himalaya range. the southern branch blows to the south of Himalaya ranges along 25°N latitude.
   The western disturbances bring winter rain, providing much-needed moisture for winter crops, hail Storms in North western Plains, and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions. the amount of rainfall brought by western disturbances reduced from west to east and from north to south.
   It is believed that this branch of jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter weather condition over India .this jet stream is responsible for bringing Western disturbances from the Mediterranean region into the Indian subcontinent .Western disturbances are extra-tropical storms originating in the Mediterranean region, which bring sudden winter rain to the North Western parts of the Indian subcontinent. winter rains are non monsoon precipitation driven by the westerly jet stream.
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   2.easterly jet stream.
   The easterly jet streams Sterrs the cyclonic depression into India .the cyclonic depression brought by the easterly jet stream causes rainfall in Peninsular India. the easterly jet stream affect the peninsular region of India during summer months.during summer, due to the Apparent shift of the sun in the Northern hemisphere ,the reversal in the upper air circulation takes place .the westerly stream is replaced by the easterly jet stream.
2. LOCAL WINDS.
   Local winds occur on a small spatial scale, their horizontal dimensions typically
   several tens to a few hundreds of kilometres. They also tend to be short-lived
   lasting typically several hours to a day. There are many such winds around
   the world, some of them cold, some warm, some wet, some dry. There are many
   hazards associated with the winds.
   ︎Loo :
   The Loo is a strong, dusty, gusty, hot and dry summer wind from the west which blows over the western Indo-Gangetic Plain region of North India and Pakistan.
   Since it causes extremely low humidity and high temperatures, the Loo also has a severe drying effect on vegetation leading to widespread browning in the areas affected by it during the months of May and June. During summer ,dry and hot wind blow in the ITCZ belt over northern plains. These winds are called “loo”.loo brings temporary relief from hot weather and these winds may bring light rain and even cool Breeze .loo takes place before the emergence of monsoon.
   ︎ Mango showers:
   Mango showers is a colloquial term to describe the occurrence of pre-monsoon rainfall. Sometimes, these rains are referred to generically as ‘April rains’ or ‘Summer showers’. They are notable across much of South and Southeast Asia, including .India and Cambodia.In southern Asia, these rains greatly influence human activities because of the control the rains have on crops that are culturally significant like mangoes and coffee. Sometimes these rains are called summer shower for pre monsoon showers .these Rains normally occur from March, although their arrival is often difficult to predict.their intensity can range from light shower to heavy and Presistent thunderstorms
3. Pre monsoon showers are common especially in Kerala ,Karnataka ,and parts of Tamilnadu in India.
4. that help in the early ripening of mangoes and others called mango showers.
   ︎Norwesters :
   Nor’westers or the Kalbaishakhi is mostly referred in Odisha or Bordoisila or Bardoli Chhera an isolated rain fall and thunder storm which occurs in India and Bangladesh, often with violent hurricane-speed winds. If given enough moisture and convection currents, it can even take the form of tornadoes .These generally occur just before sunset or just few hours after it, when thick dark black clouds start appearing over the South Western sky and then bring gale-speed wind with torrential rain often with hail but span only a short period of time. 
   These are dreadful evening thunderstorms in Bengal And assam. Norwesters cause destruction but are useful for Tea ,jute and rice cultivation .
   ︎Blossom showers:
   Blossom Showersis a colloquial term to describe the occurrence of pre-monsoon rainfall. Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common, especially in Kerala, Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu in India. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, hence the name. Blossom showers facilitated the growth of coffee in the coastal region of Kerala and Karnataka.

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CLIMATE:
Climate, conditions of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period of time; it is the long-term summation of the atmospheric elements that, over short time periods, constitute weather. 
Climate is therefore time-dependent, and climatic values or indexes should not be quoted without specifying what years they refer to.
India’s climate is predominantly of the monsoon type, climate associated with seasonal reversal of winds.
1.FACTORS DETERMINING INDIA’S CLIMATE:
The factors determining India’s climate are classified into two categories:

1. factors related to location and relief.
   ■ latitude:
   latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth’s surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
   India is located partially in the tropical region and partially in the temperate region ,as a Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India .the southern parts, begin closer to the equator, experience high temperature throughout the year. the nothern parts are distant from the equator and experience comparatively lower temperature, particularly in winters. this the monthly average temperature of the warmest and the coldest month in North India are 32 degree Celsius and 21 degree Celsius ,the monthly average temperature of the warmest and the coldest month in South India 33 degree Celsius and 26 degree Celsius.
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2. ■ Himalayas:
   The Himalayas is the highest mountain range in the world, and has 9 out of 10 of the world’s highest peaks, including Mount Everest. These mountains, referred to as the Third Pole, are the source of some of Asia’s major rivers and also help to regulate our planet’s climate. They act as a barrier for bitterly cold and dry winds coming from Central Asia and the Siberian region they. They also limit the northward journey of the rain bearing Southwest monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture in the Indian subcontinent. the Himalaya act as a climate division between the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia.
   ■ Distribution of land and water:
   distribution of land and water on Earth’s surface is markedly different in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Southern Hemisphere may be called the water hemisphere, while the Northern Hemisphere is the land hemisphere.
   As compared to land mass ,water heats up or cools down slowly .this cause differential heating of land and sea.
   the differential heating causes seasonal reversal of wind .India experiences Southwest monsoon during summer and Northeast monsoon during winter.
   ■ Distance from sea:
   The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures.
   Southern or peninsular India is surrounded by the Arabian sea, the Indian Ocean,and the bay of bengal.the climate of coastal regions of India is equable or maritime.the region located in the interior of the country are cut of from the oceanic influence .they have an extreme or Continental type of climate .the areas in South India ,in comparison to the areas in North India, experience lower annual range and daily range of temperature.
   ■ Altitude :
   altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or “up” direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context. Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage.
   We have read earlier that the temperature decreases with increase in altitude. temperature of air increases when it comes into contact with warm land mass.
   ■ Relief:
   relief is the difference between its highest and lowest elevations.A two-dimensional relief map displays the topography of a given area.Physical relief maps actually have raised areas that represent different elevations. However, if you’re going for a hike, they’re not very practical to carry in your pocket.
3. Factors related to air pressure and wind;

The wind blows because of differences in air pressure from one location to another. Wind blows from areas of high pressure toward areas of low pressure. If the high pressure area is very close to the low pressure area, or if the pressure difference is very great, the wind can blow very fast.
■ Lower air pressure or monsoon.
The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the earth and the incoming energy from the sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which help transport energy and heat from the equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy from the sun at the surface as warm air rises and colder air sinks. The complete reversal in the direction of wind over India brings about a change in season. These winds that change their direction with the change in season are called monsoon wind. the word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word “Mousim” which means ” season”. this wind have such a far-reaching influence on India Climate that India climate is termed”. “monsoon type of climate”.
2.INDIAN MONSOON: MECHANISM AND ONSET.
The period June to September is referred to as the ‘Southwest Monsoon’ period. Southwest Monsoon period is the principal rainy season for the Indian subcontinent.  This is the summer monsoon period where the southwest monsoon holds away over the country.  The whole country receives nearly 75% of its rainfall during this period.                     during summer in the Northern hemisphere, the inter-tropical convergence zone shifts northwards from the equator to Indian land mass .the southeast trade wind in the southern hemisphere ,are under the impact of intense low pressure, cross over the equator and enter the northern hemisphere.Southwest monsoon sets in over the extreme southwestern tip of the peninsula by the end of May. The onset of Monsoon is characterized by a sudden spurt of rainfall activity.  It progresses inland in stages and covers the entire country by the middle of July.
Remember that wind blow from high pressure to low pressure area .winds deflects towards their right in the Northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. the low pressure belt shift northwards over the the North Indian Plains ,during summer .on the other hand, the water body adjoining the Indian peninsula has comparatively high pressure. this leads to wind movement from the Sea to the land the Southwest wind together moisture over the sea and bring rainfall in the Indian subcontinent. These wind touch the coast of Kerala on 1st June and cover entire Indian land mass by 15 July.
These winds bifurcated into two branches:
1 .Arabian sea branch :
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct streams on arriving in the mainland of India. The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of over 250 cm.
It blows over Arabian Sea and enters Indian land mass. it is further the divided into the following:
︎ First branch: it is obstructed by the Western Ghats .after crossing the Western Ghats, this branch descends downwards and get heated up ,causing little rainfall in the rain Shadow area .the windward side of the Western Ghats receives heavy rainfall.
︎ second branch: it strikes the coast of Maharashtra and moves along the river valley of Narmada and Tapi .this winds cause rainfall in Central India.
︎third branch: it enters from the cost of Gujarat and leads to rainfall in entire Gujarat. this branch also cause scanty rainfall in western Rajasthan and while moving along the Aravalli.

1. Bay of Bengal branch:
   It Gathers moisture from the Bay of Bengal and strikes Myanmar and Southeast Bangladesh. this branch, in North East India and West Bengal from the south and south east direction Instead of the south west direction .arakan yoma Hills deflect this branch towards Indian subcontinent.
   This branch, after coming into contact with the Himalayas, further splits into the following:
   ■ the first branch: moves westwards along the Ganga Plains, covering the whole of North India.
   ■ the second branch: moves up from the Brahmaputra valley in northeast India, causing widespread rains .its sub branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills in Meghalaya. that trapped clouds pour heavy rainfall, making Mawsynram and Cherrapunji the wettest places in the world.
   ■ also the Western Ghats block the extension of the Arabian Sea branch .during summer, Tamil Nadu coast remains in the rain Shadow region.
   ■ the rain bearing Bay of Bengal branch moves parallel to the Tamil Nadu coast. as a result ,Tamilnadu does not receive rainfall from the Bay of Bengal branch during summer.

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Red and Yellow solis:

Red soil develops on crystalline in igneous rock in the area of low rainfall in the eastern and Southern parts of the Deccan Plateau. red soil also cover are approximately 16 % of the total area of the country. in the soil develop the reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. it looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. these soils are generally poor in nitrogen, Phosphorus ,and humus.
Red soil gets its colour from the iron found in its composition in a crystallized form. The soil takes on a yellow colour when it is hydrated. These soils are generally found in the Western Ghats, Odisha and Chattisgarh. The clay form of red soil is nutrient rich and viable for forestation.
This soils are present in larger part of Tamil Nadu ,Eastern Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka ,along with the southern parts of Maharashtra, Chattisgarh ,parts of Odisha and chota Nagpur region.
Laterite soil:
Laterite soils developed in areas with high temperature and high rainfall .the soils are a result of intense leaching due to tropical rain .as heavy rains leach lime and silica, soil rich in iron oxide and Aluminium compounds are left Behind .humus content of the soil is removed quickly by bacteria that thrive in and high temperature.
Laterite has commonly been referred to as a soil type as well as being a rock type. This and further variation in the modes of conceptualizing about laterite (e.g. also as a complete weathering profile or theory about weathering) has led to calls for the term to be abandoned altogether. 
The soils are poor inorganic matter, nitrogen ,phosphate ,and Calcium, while iron oxide and Potash are in excess .laterite soil is not suitable for cultivation; but application of manure and fertilizers make this soil fertile for cultivation.
This soils are commonly found in the wind ward side of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala ,and other region with the rainfall of 200 cm or more.

Arid soil.
Arid soils have surface horizons with several unique characteristics. Many arid soils, for example, are covered by desert pavement that overlies vesicular A and E horizons. Other arid soils are covered by salt efflorescence in areas where shallow groundwater has risen by capillarity and evaporated at the surface. 
Arid soil range from red to brown in colour.
They are generally Sandy in structure and saline in nature. in some areas ,the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water. due to the dry climate ,high temperature, and fast evaporation .the lack of moisture and humus.
arid soils are covered by microbiotic crusts or by blankets of aeolian sand or silt. Nearly all arid soils have lower amounts of organic matter than their more humid counterparts. For classification purposes, the surface horizon (i.e., epipedon) that is ubiquitous for arid soils is the ochric epipedon.
Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal .calcium content is high in the lower layers of the soils .as a result, the lower horizon of the soil are occupied by “Kankar”. arid soils are present in western Rajasthan.
Saline soils.
Saline soils are also known as “usara” soils. These soils a larger proportion of Sodium, Potassium, and magnesium, and thus they are infertile and do not support any vegetative growth .they have more salts ,largely because of dry climate and poor drainage .they occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in water logged and swampy areas.

saline soils can be recognized by the spotty growth of crops and often by the presence of white salt crusts on the surface. When the salt problem is only mild, growing plants often have a blue-green tinge. Barren spots and stunted plants may appear in cereal or forage crops growing on saline areas. The extent and frequency of bare spots is often an indication of the concentration of salts in the soil. If the salinity level is not sufficiently high to cause barren spots, the crop appearance may be irregular in vegetative vigour.
Saline soils are widespread in western Gujarat ,Rann of Kutch region, and deltas of the eastern coast saline soil are prevalent in the Rann of Kutch region because the Southwest monsoon bring salt particles from the sea and deposit in this region. saline soils are prevalent in the deltas of the eastern cost because seawater intrusion in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soil. This salt fill the small holes through which underground water is recharged. this process is is known as soil salinity, which further leads to desertification of land.
peaty soils.
Peaty soil is dark brown or black in color, soft, easily compressed due to its high water content, and rich in organic matter. Peat soil started forming over 9,000 years ago, with the rapid melting of glaciers. This rapid melt drowned plants quickly and died in the process. Their decay was so slow underwater that it led to the accumulation of organic area in a concentrated spot.
Peaty soil are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity ,and there is good growth of vegetation .a large quantity of Dead organic matter accumulates in the areas ,and this gives are rich in humus and organic content to the soil. This soils are normally heavy and black in colour .this occur in traces in the Northern part of Bihar ,southern part of Uttarakhand, and the coastal areas of West Bengal ,Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.

Forest soil.
Forest soils, where soil formation has been influenced by forest vegetation, are generally characterized by deeply rooted trees, significant ‘litter layers’ or O horizons, recycling of organic matter and nutrients, including wood, and wide varieties of soil-dwelling organisms . There are also soils now covered with forest vegetation, often plantations, on lands that were not naturally forested.
Forest soil formed in the forest Areas where sufficient rainfall is available .these soils vary in structure and texture depending on the climate of the Mountain where they are formed. the snowbound area of the Himalayas, the experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content .the soil found in the lower fertile valleys are fertile. They are loamy and silty on Valley sides and coarse grained on the upper slopes.

4.SOIL DEGRADATION AND SOIL EROSION.
soil degradation:
The decline in soil fertility is called soil degradation. The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place according to the topography, wind velocity ,and amount of rainfall.
Soil degradation is the loss of land’s production capacity in terms of loss of soil fertility, soil biodiversity, and degradation. Soil degradation causes include agricultural, industrial, and commercial pollution; loss of arable land due to urban expansion, overgrazing, and unsustainable agricultural practices; and long-term climatic changes. 
The use of chemical fertilizers in the absence of organic manure is also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil gets enough humus,chemicals harden the soil and reduce its fertility in the long run.
It was also reported that all of the World’s topsoil could become unproductive within 60 years if current rates of loss continue.

soil Erosion.
The destruction of the soil cover in described as soil erosion.
The soil -forming processes and the erosional process of running water and wind go on simultaneously .there is a balance between these two process .the rate of removal of fine particles from the surface is the same as the rate of addition of particle to the soil layer.
Human activities have increased by 10–50 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes both “on-site” and “off-site” problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.
Various type of soil erosion are as follows:
• wind erosion:
The term wind erosion refers to the damage of land as a result of wind removing soil from an area. Most often, wind erosion occurs on flat land in dry or sandy areas. It is significant in arid and semi-arid regions .For example: Rock formation in various location sculpted by wind erosion. Dunes, particularly in deserts, off of which sand is blown.
• water erosion:
Water erosion is the wearing away of the soil surface by water from rain, runoff, snowmelt, and irrigation. Rainwater in the form of runoff.
In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes ,erosion by running water is common and takes place mainly in the form of sheet or gully erosion.
• sheet erosion:
Sheet erosion or sheet wash is the even erosion of substrate along a wide area.Sheet erosion occur in wide range of settings such as coastal plains, hillslopes, floodplains and beaches. Water moving fairly uniformly with a similar thickness over a surface is called sheet flow and is the cause of sheet erosion. It takes place mainly on slopes but can also take place on level land after heavy shower, and the soil removal is not easily noticeable .it is harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.
• gully erosion:
Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff. Once started, gullies will continue to move by headward erosion or by slumping of the side walls unless steps are taken to stabilise the disturbance.
It is common on steep slopes .gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the agricultural land into small fragments, and make them unfit for cultivation. a region with the large number of deep gullies or ravines is called Badland topography .ravines are widespread, in the Chambal basin .they are also found in Tamilnadu and West Bengal.
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5.SOIL CONSERVATION:
Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the top most layer of the soil from erosion or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation, cover crops, conservation tillage and planted windbreaks, affect both erosion and fertility. When plants die, they decay and become part of the soil.
plant residues and grass margins in order to better address the soil conservation. Political and economic action is further required to solve the erosion problem. Asimple governance hurdle concerns how we value the land and this can be changed by cultural adaptation.
Various techniques for soil conservation are as follows:
︎ Terrace farming:
In agriculture, a terrace is a piece of sloped plane that has been cut into a series of successively receding flat surfaces or platforms, which resemble steps, for the purposes of more effective farming. This type of landscaping is therefore called terracing. Graduated terrace steps are commonly used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced fields decrease both erosion and surface runoff, and may be used to support growing crops that require irrigation, such as rice. 
This method of farming uses “steps” that are built into the side of a mountain or hill. On each level, various crops are planted. When it rains, instead of washing away all of the nutrients in the soil, the nutrients are carried down to the next level. Additionally, these steps prevent a free flowing avalanche of water that would take plants with it and destroy all of the crops on the hillside. This system also allowed them to build aqueducts, which carried water to each level.
︎Contour bunding:
Counter ploughing or counter forming aur counter bunding is the farming practice of creating a water break along the counter lines. the water break reduces heavy water runoff,which is a major cause of soil erosion .the water break also allows more time for the water to settle into the soil.
Contour bunding is a proven sustainable land management practice for marginal, sloping, and hilly land where the soil productivity is very low. It is widely adopted by the ethnic minorities of Nepal who practice the shifting cultivation system of farming. Over generations, they have successfully used this technology to control soil erosion, promote water retention, and increase crop production. It has a high probability of replication because it is simple to implement, is low cost, and makes the maximum use of local resources.
︎check dams:
A check dam is a small, sometimes temporary, dam constructed across a swale, drainage ditch, or waterway to counteract erosion by reducing water flow velocity.Check dams themselves are not a type of new technology; rather, they are an ancient technique dating from the second century.check dams are not a type of new technology; rather,they are an ancient technique.
wind breaks:
Windbreaks are linear plantings of trees and shrubs designed to enhance crop production, protect people and livestock, and benefit soil and water conservation. Windbreaks can provide valuable opportunities for vine and tree fruit growers, row crop farmers, livestock producers, and rural homeowners.
Wind breaker is usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs, are planted in such a manner so as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from the erosion .they are commonly planted around the edges on the farms. wind break around a home can reduce the cost of heating and cooling. windbreak are also planted to prevent snow from drifting on to roadways.

︎Agroforestry:
Agroforestry are Agro-sylviculture is a land use management system in which trees pr shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland.
It combines shrubs and trees into agricultural to create more sustainable land use system such as preventing soil erosion.
Agroforestry helps to conserve and protect natural resources by, for example, mitigating non-point source pollution, controlling soil erosion, and creating wildlife habitat. The benefits of agroforestry add up to a substantial improvement of the economic and resource sustainability of agriculture.
Agricultural practices for soil conservation:
︎ crop rotation:
Crop rotation, the successive cultivation of different crops in a specified order on the same fields, in contrast to a one-crop system or to haphazard crop successions. Growing of different crops on a piece or of land in a preplanned successions is known as crop rotation. the principal is to utilize the available resource to the fullest to harvest the maximum in a unit land without affecting the soil health. example of crops that can be shown in crop rotations are rice,red gram ,banana etc..
Broadly speaking, cropping systems should be planned around the use of deep-rooting legumes. If too little use is made of them, productivity will decline; if too much land is devoted to them, wastes may occur and other useful crops will be displaced. Rotations depending wholly on green-manure legumes should be confined to the more level and fertile lands. It is desirable to include legumes alone or in mixtures with nonlegume sod-forming crops as a regular crop in many field rotations. In general, this should occur about once in each four-year period. Short rotations are not likely to provide the best crop balances, and long rotations on a larger number of fields may introduce complications. With a moderate number of fields, additional flexibility can be provided by split cropping on some fields.
mixed cropping:
Growing of two or more crop simultaneously on the same piece of land is known as mixed cropping. it is also known as multiple cropping. this type of cropping leads to an improvement in the fertility of soil and, hence, increased the crop yield.
Since crops ripen during different seasons, planting more than one saves space and also provides a wealth of environmental benefits including maintaining a balance of input and outgo of soil nutrients; weed, disease, insect pest suppression; resistance to climate extremes (wet, dry, hot, cold); an increase in overall productivity, and management of scarce land resources to its maximum potential.

︎Inter cropping: growing two or more crops simultaneously with the distinct row arrangement on the same field at the same time is known as intercropping.
The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop.
While intercropping involves the planting of more than one crop on the same piece of land at the same time, there are different methods of maximizing yield from this type of farming. Row intercropping involves planting more than one crop simultaneously, with at least one of the crops planted in a row. 
difference between mixed cropping and intercropping
︎In mixed cropping Seeds of two crops are mixed before sowing.whereas,in inter cropping Seeds of two crops are not mixed.

︎mixed cropping It minimizes the risk of crop failure due to lack of rainfall.whereas ,It increases productivity per unit area.

︎ in mixed cropping the crops are almost of the same duration. But in inter crop are of short duration and are harvested much earlier than the main crops.

︎ I’m mixed cropping sowing time is same for all the crops.in inter cropping sowing time may be same or different.

︎ Pest control is difficult in mixed cropping. Whereas, Pest control is comparatively easy in intercropping.

︎ in mixed cropping, Harvesting of crops is difficult.but in intercropping cropping Different crops from the same field can be harvested easily.

︎ Fertilizer application for the specific crop is difficult in mixed cropping. Fertilizers can be applied as per the need of the crop in inter cropping.

︎ Equal emphasis is given to all the crops in mixed cropping. More emphasis is given to the main crop in inter cropping.

Mulching: a mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It is used to retain moisture in the soil, suppress weeds, keep the soil cool, prevent frost heaving in winter, and make the garden bed look more attractive.  mulch performs the following functions:
• conserve moisture.
• improve the fertility and health of the soil.
• reduce weed growth.
• enhances the visual appeal of the area.

Bark, Shredded or Chipped

Pine Needles

Grass Clippings

Newspaper

Shredded Leaves

Straw

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