By vinayias desk saf
INDIAN HISTORY
INRTODUCTION
WHAT IS HISTORY?
The study of past event is called HISTORY. The English word HISTORY is derived from the Greek word which stands for HISTORIA. The meaning of historia is inquiries, the knowledge acquired by investigation is known as historia. Before the knowledge about Indian history lets first look around into the beginning of history. vinayiasacademy.com
The Greek historian titled Herodotus (his period was estimated around 484 BC to 425 BC) was the first real historian of the world. vinayiasacademy.com
He inscribed only one book named “THE HISTORIES” (in the year of 430 BC). The histories describe the background and highlight the event of graeco-persian or Greek Iranian wars that took place . He was first titled as “father of history “by roman philosopher named Cicero (his period belongs from 106 BC to 43 BC).
THE MODERN HISTORY
THE GERMAN PHILOSOPHER named Leopold von Ranke (his period belongs from 1795 to 1886 AD) is also known as “FATHER OF MODERN HISTORY “.
The German philosopher HEGEL (1770 -1831) once said history repeat itself, later on German economist who is also a philosopher named KARL MARX (1818-83 AD) extended the line that was said by German philosopher Hegel and now it is presented before us like —history repeat itself, first as tragedy, second as farce. vinayiasacademy.com
DISCUSSION ABOUT CONCEPT OF AD AND BC TIME INDICATOR.
BC and AD symbolise the specific time period in which era does the particular event to history took place. However, BC is stand for the period that belongs to before the birth of lord Jesus Christ. This is an English phrase meaning “before the birth of Christ (lord Jesus). it is denoted as BC in short. AD is stands for the phrase anno domini. This is a Latin phrase that refers to the meaning in the year of the lord Jesus.
TIME GLOSSARY
The glossary relation to time is refer to time glossary.
Decade – this refers to the time measurement that belongs to the period of 10 years.
First half – this refers to the time measurement that belongs to the first 50 year of the century.
second half – this refers to the time measurement that belongs to the last half of the century.
Century – this refers to the time measurement that belongs to the period of 100 years.
Millennium – this refers to the time measurement that belongs to the period of 1000 year.
First decade of 20th century AD means -this refers to the period that belongs from 1900 to 1910 AD.
Fifth decade of 20th century AD means -this refers to the period that belongs from 1941 to1950 AD.
Eight decades of 20th century AD means -this refers to the period that belongs from 1971 to 1980 AD.
Last decade of 20th century AD means – this refers to the period that belongs from 1991 to 2000 AD.
First half of 20th century AD means – this refers to the period that belongs from 1901 to 1950 AD.
Second half of 20th century AD means – this refers to the period that belongs from 1951 to 2000 AD. vinayiasacademy.com
6th century BC means – this refers to the periods that belongs from 600 BC TO 501 BC.
4TH CENTURY BC means -this refers to the periods that belongs from 400 to 301 BC.
- 16 TH CENTURY BC means -this refers to the periods that belongs from 1501 to 1600 BC.
- 20TH CENTURY BC means – this refers to the periods that belongs from 1901 to 2000 BC.
- 2nd millennium BC means – this refers to the periods that belongs from 2000 to 1001 BC.
- 1st millennium BC means – this refers to the periods that belongs from 1000 to 1 BC.
- 1st millennium AD means – this refers to the periods that belongs from 1AD to 1000AD.
- 2nd millennium AD means – this refers to the period that belongs from 1001 to 2000AD.
PERIODISATION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORYPALAEOLITHIC AGE – This age is extended from 5,00,000 BC TO 10,000 BC. This age consists of three phases. A) early or lower Palaeolithic phase B) middle Palaeolithic phase that extended from 50,000 BC to 40,000 BC. C) Upper palaeolithic phase that extended from 40,000 BC to 10,000 BC. vinayiasacademy.com
MESOLITHIC AGE – this age is extended from 9000 BC to 4000 BC.
NEOLITHIC AGE – This age is extended from 5000 BC to 1800 BC.
CHALCOLITHIC AGE – This age is extended from 1800 BC to 1000 BC .
IRON AGE – This age is extended from 1000 BC onwards.
INDUS CIVILSATION ( also known as HARAPPAN CIVILISATION )- This age is extended from 2900 BC to 1700 BC. vinayiasacademy.com
VEDIC PERIOD – This age is extended from 1500 BC to 600 BC.
PRE MAURYAN AGE – this age is extended from from 6th century BC to 4TH century BC.
MAURYAN AGE – This age is extended from 321 BC to 184 BC.
POST MAURYAN AGE – This age is extended from 200 BC to 300 BC.
GUPTA PERIOD – This age is extended from 4th century AD to 6th century AD.
AGE OF HARSHA – This age is extended from 606 AD to 647 AD.
AGE OF CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI – This age is extended from 543 AD to 755 AD.
AGE OF PALLAVAS OF KANCHIPURAM – This age is extended from 560 AD to 903 AD.
IMPORTANT ERAS :
History has list of eras that been categorised and such categorisation is framed as following;
Kali era – (This era revolve around the period belongs to 3101 BC) it is estimated that this era began about 20 years after the end of Hindu mythological story of Mahabharat war according to the inscription record that has been found. vinayiasacademy.com
Saptarshi or laukika era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to 3076 BC) this era has Started about after the expiry of 25 years of the kali year.
Virama or malawah era – (this era revolves round period the belongs to 58 or 57 BC) this era Commenced by ruler named Vikram Aditya, the local king of Ujjain (malawas) to commemorates the victory over the sakas. vinayiasacademy.com
Saka era – (this era revolves around the period belongs to 78AD) This era commenced by Kushan ruler Kanishka, on the occasion of his ascendance to the throne. Saka era is also known as salivahana sakabda in region of south India.
Kalchuri era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to 248 AD) this era was founded by king of abhir who named as Ishwar Sen, later on this era also contribute great ruler like traikutaka ruler and kalchuris of chedi owned this era.
Gupta era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to 319 AD) this era was founded by king Chandragupta 1 of Guptas dynasty. vinayiasacademy.com
Harsha era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to606 AD) the founder of this era was king of kannauj named Harshvardhan.
Hijri era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to 622 AD) This era was founded by Umar.
Kollam era – (this era revolve around the period belongs to 825 AD) this era was located in region of Malabar now in present time named as Kerala.
Nevari /Nepalis era – (this era revolve around belongs to 879 AD) this era was founded by jaideo mall.
Chalukya vikrama era – (this era revolve around belongs to 1076 AD) This era was founded by king named Vikram Aditya.
Lakshmana era – (this era revolve around belongs to 1119 AD) this era was founded by Sen ruler of Bengal.
Ilahi era – (this era revolve around belongs to 1556 AD) this era was founded by mugal ruler who named Akbar. vinayiasacademy.com
Raj saka era – (this era revolve around belongs to 1673 AD) This era was founded by Maratha ruler who named as Chhatrapati Shivaji.
ANCIENT HISTORY :
INTRODUCTION
It is the river which gave India its name. the Indians knew this river named as Sindhu, and it was the Persian, who found difficulty in pronouncing the initial S letter so they called it Hindu. From Persian, the word passed to Greece, where the whole of India become known by the name of the western river. vinayiasacademy.com
The people of an ancient India knew their subcontinent by the name of jambudvipa (that stands for the continent that refers to the jambu tree) or also named as bharatvarsha, that stands for the land that refers to the sons of bharat, that were known as a legendary emperor of their own time period) and the history gave title named HINDUSTAN to India who throws light over the entrance and invasion of the Muslim as they were the Persian who returned the name of Indian subcontinent in the form of title HINDUTAN and for those who had its inhabitants who followed the old religion became known as Hindu.
The ancient civilisation of India differs from those of the other civilisation of the world like Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece, in that its traditions have been preserved without a break down to the present day. On other hand China have the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world and there are both written as well as archaeological evidence that prove this fact that china contributes its great history. vinayiasacademy.com
William Jones’s initiative led to the founding of the Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784 with jones himself as president. Moreover, he also contributes as He translated text like Shakuntala, gita govinda and the law book of Manu into English language.
Charles welkin’s translated the text bhagat gita and hitopadesa into English script.
Max muller who also had a Sanskrit name, known as moksha mula. He wrote two books name ‘India, what can it teach us? and biography of ‘words and home of the aryas” shows his contribution. Max muller also edited, ‘the rig Veda’ and also another book called scared books of the east. vinayiasacademy.com
James prinsep was first who interpreted for first times the earliest Brahmi script and this contribution of his work towards Brahmi script was to make able to read the edicts of the great emperor Ashoka along with his great action and conquest.
In 1862 alexander Cunningham shows his contribution and was appointed to the post of archaeological surveyor of India. That is why, Cunningham was known as the father of Indian archaeology.
Archaeology can be defined as the branch of the science which enables us to dig the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers to form an idea of the material life of the people. vinayiasacademy.com
In addition to this, the study of coins is called NUMISMATICS.
The study of inscription is called EPIGRAPHY and the study of old writing used in inscription and other old record is called palaeography. These all factors that where mentioned above are golden parameters that contribute in the area of history and its connection to the materialistic work or art of that particular period of time.
It was another contribution of john Marshall at his time period as director general of the archaeological survey of India and that result as there was discovery of the Indus valley civilisation that was known to be biggest discovery of that time.
The enormous Sanskrit German dictionary generally known as the St. Petersburg lexicon that was produced around the time period of the 19th century by German scholar who was named as Otto bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth.
The very first presentation of systematic history of ancient India was prepared in 1904 by Vincent Arthur smith in his famous book that popularly named as early history of India.
James mill in his book that popularly named as history of British India was the very first book that presented the systematic and periodise history of India on communal lines. He classified ancient history of India into three major categories as- at first, he put Hindu history, then followed by medieval Indian history that is known as Muslim history and last one that reshape the map of India- modern history of India that popularly known as British period. The classification is so deeply embedded in the consciousness of those studying about India that it prevails to this day. vinayiasacademy.com
Radio carbon dating is the method according to which the dates of the excavated material remain are fixed. Moreover, there are different pattern that were used at the time od ancient period to create format pattern for suitable writing practice. There is some evidence that were found to establish the proof of writing format such as Brahmi script and kharoshti script as well. vinayiasacademy.com
Brahmi script is refers to the script that show the evidence of written from left to right pattern, that considered to be precursor of all the Indian script except the Indus script.
Kharoshti script is refers to the script that shows the evidence of written from right to left pattern that used only in north western India.
The Greek historian who named as Herodotus wrote the book that gain title as historica is considered as the father of history. vinayiasacademy.com
HISTORICAL SOURCES
The sources that gives information about the event of past time are known as historical sources. There are broadly two types of historical sources that categories as following – literary sources and archaeological sources. With the comparison of literary sources, the archaeological sources are believed more reliable because it is almost impossible to change in it. vinayiasacademy.com
The archaeological sources are important sources to the study about ancient time period of India.
LITERARY SOURCES
Literary sources are divided into further two categories – indigenous sources and foreign sources. INDIGENOUS SOURCES – this source also have further two categories of this sources mainly named as – religious and secular. Under these religious text brahmanic text, Buddhist text, Jain text are included. Secular text consists of text like historical text, semi-historical text, biographical text etc are included. vinayiasacademy.com
BRAHMANIC SOURCES
Brahmanic sources are consists of following sources;
Shruti text – these texts are consisting of four major text mainly named as Samhitas or Vedas, brahmanas, Aranyaka and Upanishads.
Smriti text – these texts are consisting of three major text that mainly named as vedangas or sutras, smritis, epics (popularly named as Ramayana and Mahabharata). vinayiasacademy.com
It was estimated that the composing time of smritis text is around the time period from 600 BC TO 600 AD. The smritis texts provide the knowledge of the social organisation, their theories, custom, right and duty of king and relation of king with their subject respectively. It was estimated that the composing time of epics (like Ramayana and Mahabharat) is around the time period from 400 BC to 400 AD. The Ramayana (also known as Valmiki) throw light over social, political and religious condition of India of that time. The book provides the information about origin and development of Jana pada. Beside this, it also mentions about yavanas (Greek) and sakas (scythias). vinayiasacademy.com
The Mahabharata (also known as ved vayas) throws light on the issue and situation of political, social, religious condition of India of that time. It is extensive form of Mahabharat war which was fought around the era of time period 900 BC. This war was held between two parties and they were known as kauravas and pandavas. Moreover, the Mahabharata claims that Yann bharate tann bharate which is not in Mahabharata that is also not found in bharat now popularly known as India. It provides detail about place that named Girivraja, which was capital of Magadha is mention in it. The Mahabharat informs us about that the Panchal state, that was in existence from the time of Mahabharat. Beside this, it mentions Huns along with yavanas and skas.
It was estimated that the composing time of puranas was around the time period from 400 BC to 400AD. The puranas highlight the point or events of history of India from very beginning to gupta period. usually puranas have 5 segments as they were listed as following – vinayiasacademy.com
Sarga – this segment contributes the information about the creation of universe.
Pratisarga – this segment contributes the information about the recreation anything in the universe.
Vamsa – this segment contributes the information about the genealogy of the god and sgas.
Manvantara – this segment contributes about the information about the epochs of Manu. vinayiasacademy.com
Vansanucharitams – this segment contributes the information about narrative of ancient dynasties
Vansanucharitam is only important puranas among them which were mentioned above from point of view of history.
Unfortunately, vansanucharitam are not found in every puranas. There are few puranas that contain the part of vansanucharitam. Puranas that have vansanuchritam mentioned with in it named as -matsya, Bhagwat, Vishnu, Vayu, brahma, bhavishya, garud purana. There are only 7 puranas that contain vansanuchartima. Garud purana has genealogies of purava, ikshwaku, brahadrath dynasties but its period or date is not fixed. Moreover, there are four Samhitas or Vedas – there are four Vedas that were included under Samhitas named as – rig Vedas (estimated the time period from 1500 BC TO 1000 BC) and yajur Vedas, Sama Vedas, atharava Vedas (estimated the time period from 1100 BC TO 600 BC). vinayiasacademy.com
VEDIC PERIODS
Information of the Vedic period comes from Vedic literature. The scholars have divided the Vedic period into two period – first the early and secondly, later Vedic period. The only sources of information which belongs to the early Vedic period is the rig Veda. All the other components of the Vedic literature belong to the early Vedic period. however, the Vedic literature consists of the 4 text mainly named as Samhitas, brahmanas, aranyakas and Upanishads. There are also six vedangas and four upas -Vedas. The Samhitas are refers as the collections of hymns that were sung in the praise of various gods. additionally, they are four in number – rig Vedas, Sama Vedas, yajur Vedas and atharva Vedas. vinayiasacademy.com
RIG VEDAS
The word Vedas comes from the root word vid i.e. to known. It is specifically applied to a branch of literature considered to be shruti that stands for scared knowledge or divided revelation. Moreover, we can say that, the rig Veda literally means Vedas of praise. Its history claims that It is purely a religious work that most of the hymns are all invocation of the gods. rig Vedas is divided into mainly 10 books or mandalas. The oldest hymns (or popularly known as suktas) and supplemented by 11 others, these all collectively known as called valakhilyas. Rig Veda is the only book of the Vedic literature which was dated to the early Vedic period, so it is the oldest of the four Samhitas. In Mandla of the rig Vedas, composed by visvamitra we find the famous gayatri mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri. In the 10th mandalas of the rig Vedas are present the hymn on creation which is called the purushaskta hymn which is the largest hymn of the rig Vedas which also mentions chaturvana scheme of society. The first and tenth mandalas of the rids Veda which are considered as the latest based on the style of their composition as well as the nature of material culture revelled by them the composition of the rig Veda began by 1500 BC and ended by 1000 BC. vinayiasacademy.com
SAMA VEDA
Sama Veda derived its words Sama from words saman, a song or melody. It consists of hymns taken from the rig Veda and set to tune for the purpose of singing. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced to it.
YAJUR VEDA
It is the Vedas of formulae consisting of various mantras for the purpose of recitation and ruler to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The two royal ceremonies of rajasuya and vajpeya are mentioned for the first time in this Vedas. In contrast to the rig Veda and Sama Veda which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. According to the satapatha brahmana, the rig Veda, Sama Veda and yajur Veda constitute the tray Veda and are composed by aryans. vinayiasacademy.com
ATHARVA VEDA
It was compiled by atharva saga, a non-Aaryan. It is the Veda of formulae, charms and spells toward off evil and diseases. It throws light on the belief and practices of the aryans. It is also has the origins of Indian medicine. It is considered to be the most useful Veda since it contains information of diverse nature about agriculture, cattle rearing, industry and is nearer to the common people and is filled with many non- Aaryan words. The Sama Veda, yajur Veda, atharva ved were composed in the later Vedic period dating from 1000 BC TO 600 BC. vinayiasacademy.com
BRAHMANAS
The brahmanas are prose commentaries on the four Vedas. The subject matter is ritual. They deal with the science of sacrifice. It provides us information not only about sacrifices and ceremonies but also theology, philosophy, manners and customs of the later Vedic period. There is a total of 18 brahmanas are aitreya, kaustikaki, jaimini, taittiriya, gopatha. vinayiasacademy.com
ARANYAKAS
These are forest books which were composed in the forest and were meant for study in the forest. They deal with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. The aranyankas contain traditional material between the mythology and ritual of the Samhitas and brahmans on the one had and the philosophical speculation of the Upanishads, on the other. vinayiasacademy.com
UPNISHADS
The words Upanishad means to be seated at the feet of the guru to receive the teaching. There are total of 108 Upanishads of which are 12 are considered to be shruti or of divine revelation. The Upanishad are philosophical texts most of which seem to have been written by kshatriyas. The Upanishads are critical of the ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas and gives a spiritual interpretation of the Vedas and stress on jnanamarga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation. The central theme of their metaphysics is tat tvam asi (thou art that) which is found in chandogya Upanishad. The idea of rebirth first appears in the brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The concept of unity in diversity is drawn from mundaka Upanishad. The earliest reference to lord Krishna is in chandogya Upanishad. Shiva is mentioned for the first time in svetasvatara Upanishad. The Upanishad constitute the Vedanta not only because they constitute the last part of them but also because the Vedas reach the highest metaphysical state in the Upanishad. Upanishad are considered to be the highest philosophy ever conceived by the human mind. Buddhist text are rich with material drawn from the Upanishads. vinayiasacademy.com
BUDDHIST TEXT
There are two main categories of Buddhist text that can be divided into following – pali text and anupali text.
PALI TEXT – among the pali text tripitaka, deep vansha and maha vansha, milindpannaho are some of them which are important.
In pali text, Tripitaka is earliest and most important text. The tripitaka is consist of four segment or text named as vinaya pitaka, sutta pitaka, abhidhamma pitaka. vinayiasacademy.com
The Vinayak pitaka and sutta pitaka comprise of the first Buddhist council in the period of 483 BC that held in rajagriha that situated in Bihar now while the abhidhamma pitaka is comprised of the third Buddhist council that took place in 250 BC of the period that held in pataliputra that is situated in Bihar now. The triptitaka highlight the issues and condition of social and religious life of India of that period that is the century before birth of lord Christ Jesus. vinayiasacademy.com
The vinaya pitaka contain disciplinary rulers and regulations for leading a monastic life. The sutta pitaka is the largest and the most important text among tripitaka. The ambattha sutta of digh nikaya of sutta pitaka contains the list of 16 mahajanpadas. The jataka of khuddaka nikaya of sutta pitaka contain 549 folk tales of the previous births of Gautama buddha.the compilation of the jataka had been began in 1st century BC. This fact is very clear from the scenarios curved on railings of bharahuta and sanchi stupas. The verse part of the jataka is older than the prose part. The compilation of the verse part of the jataka had completed up to 2nd century AD. Through the jataka is religious and economic conditions of that time. The abhidhamma pitaka deals with the doctrines of the buddha in scholastic manner. vinayiasacademy.com
The deep vansha 4th century AD and the maha vansha 5th century AD had compiled in sri lanka. Though these text contain the history of sri lanka but these text throw light on ancient Indian history, especially these are helpful to construct Mauryan history. vinayiasacademy.com
Originally the milindpannaho i.e, question of Milind is a dialogue between Greek king Milind ( identified as menander, the indo Greek ruler) and buddhist monks nagasena ( identified as Nagarjuna) on philosophical matter but it throw sources light on religious, social and economic life of north west india of 1st – 2nd century AD. The political condition of that time is mentioned occasionally in it. The foreign trade of india is lively described in it. vinayiasacademy.com
Among anupali text(i.e, Sanskrit text and other text ). The diyavadan, the aryamanjushrimulkalpa, the lalit vistar, etc are important text. The political events of pre -mauryan period to vardhana period ( harshavardhana) are described occasionally in the aryamanjushrimulkalpa.
The lalit vistar contains the acts of Gautama buddha along with religious and social conditions of that time. vinayiasacademy.com
JAIN TEXT
The jain text highlight the source and condition of the social, religious and economical condition of Indian people of that time. The jain text were eventually compiled in 6th century AD in 2nd jain Mahasabha held at vallabhai in Gujarat. Among jain text , there are 12 angas that are important. The acharanga sutra contain displinary ruler and regulations for jain monks. The Bhagwati sutra draw attention upon the life of Mahavira and contains the list of 16 mahajanpadas. The namadhamma kath sutra contain the preachings of Mahavira. The antagadadosao and anutarovavaiydasao contain life stories of famous jain monks. The vivagasuyam sutra contain discussion on karma phala i.e, fruit of actions. vinayiasacademy.com
The bhadrabahu charita contain the life sketch of jin wacharya bhadrabahu along with the glimpses of later life of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya. From history point of view parishishtaparva that was written by jain achrya hemchandra has the most important place among jain text. vinayiasacademy.com
HISTORICAL TEXT
Although there is no such text of ancient india that can be properly called historical text because almost every text had written in literary or religious colour but there are some certain text in which some historical material are avavailable in dispersed manner. vinayiasacademy.com
Arthashashtra that was written by kautilya was complied in 4th century BC. It gives not only detailed information regarding the system of administration but also an idea of the social and religious life of the people of the time. It is comparable with politics and Machiavelli of Aristotle. Neetisar that was evidence of kamandaka from 4th – 6th century AD throws some light on monarchy of gupta period. shukraneetisar by shukra hightlight and condition on monarchy of that times. Neetisar neetivakyamrita by somdev suri gives information about state machinery of that time. Brahasapatya arthashastra by Brihaspati is a text in arthashashtra tradition that was written by kautilya. Rajatarangini is the best example of the earliest historical writing that is provided. Rajatarangini is written in 12th century AD by kalhana. It is a string of biographics of the kings of Kashmir. It can be the first possess several characteristics of historical of Kashmir from the earliest times up to the date of compostion of that work [from the period of 1148 – 50 AD]. However, it assumes a regular historical form only from the 7th century AD. vinayiasacademy.com
The chronicles of Gujarat – prabandh kosh also known as rajashekhara , hammir mad mardan also known as jai singh , tejpal prashasti also known as vastupal , prabandhan Chintamani also known as meruttung etc throw light on the history of Gujarat. vinayiasacademy.com
The most memorable text among the chronical of Sindh is chachanama. Muhammad bin qasim in 8th century AD appointed qazi ishamail who was qazi of alor to wrote a book namely Tarikh-i-sind-wa- hind that remind the history of sind or hind. Later on, Tarikh-i-sind-wa-hind was translated into Persian language which was originally written in Arabic language. In Persian version of Tarikh-i-sind-wa-hind the title of the book was named as chachanama. Chachnama was translated in Arabic language by ali bin hamid kufi in 1216 AD. The chachanama also had its another title that is named as fatehnama-i-sind. Tarikh-i-sind-wa-hind or chachanama throws light over the conquest of sind by Muhammad bin quasim in the era of period 711 – 12 AD. Through a grammar book of panini that is named as ashtadhyayi we had evident the issue and condition of social and religious situation of pre Maurya period and Maurya period. moreover, gargi Samhita that is a part of historical text named ad yug puran. Basically, yug puran is a jyotish text that also included the history of invasion of Greek and Scythian. Mahabhays text was written by the great historical writer who named as Patanjali. Mahabhayas is basically a commentary book on ashtadhyayi text that was written by panini. Mahabhayas also provide information about the historical materisl of that time. Kalidas also gain popularity through his play book that throw light over the issue and condition of the political and social life of people of that time. Kalidas wrote a drama or play book that named as malvikagnimitra that highlight the political and social and economical life of previous royal dynasties. It is called the mirror of interior life of royal dynasties. There is another historical text that highlight the previous dynasties. mudrarakshasa is baisically a book that was written in drama format despite of that it includes the information about the description of Chandragupta Maurya, along with his prime minister of his court popularly known as Chanakya and contemporary kings. This drama book that was written by vishakhadatta. In this drama book he mentioned the description of the senerio how Chandragupta Maurya gets assistance of Chanakya and how Chandragupta overthrown and established his conquest over nandas. vinayiasacademy.com
There are about 3 age in categorization of 3 historic period of human evolution. the first stage in these catagory is lithic age also known as stone age which revolve around the time off 3000000 BC to 1000BC . This includes further 3 division such as Paleolithic that symbolize the lifestyle off hunters and food gatherers this. Off time also inform present day history about doll tool and weapon that word used at the time. Off that era 2nd is the named as Mesolithic era that symbolize the era of time period of 9000 to 4000BC. Third is named as Neolithic era that revolving around the time period of 7000 to 1000 BC that provides information about the food production of that time. vinayiasacademy.com
The earth is over 4000 million years old. The evolution off its crust shows four stages the four stages is as categorize following which divide into most recent and present form. man is set to have appear on the earth in the early Pleistocene to sing when true ox true elephant true horse also originated. The early man seems to have moved around in Africa. The fossil of the early man have been found in everywhere but not in India. It appears that the India was settled later than Africa although the lithic technology of the subcontinent broadly involved in some manner as it did in Africa. The Stone Age culture of India develop in the play store scene period of Ice Age. vinayiasacademy.com
Old Stone Age
Paleolithic is combination of 2 words that were derived from Greek word first is paleo that is means old and followed by lithic that stand for stone does the meaning of value lithic age is the old Stone Age in India . the every evidence and the study of Paleolithic age and discovery is all credited to the Robert Bruce in the . Around 1851. Robert Bruce known for his great contribution in archaeological discovery in India that’s why he was titled as the father of prehistoric archeology Of India in the year 1863 he grave out argue logical evidence in Tamil Nadu state that was hand axe. In the year 1982 a geologists named as Arun Metal .Better value lithic age that is also known as flake culture the precious stone like Flint Jasper where use in this era by the peoples of ancient time. The early Stone Age site that have been found as evidence in India where in the Valley of River that is called soon in Punjab now that is in Pakistan. Several sites also found in Kashmir tar desert and value of mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh and in the Nevada Valley and the give and rock shelter near Bhopal. vinayiasacademy.com
There is also one phase that is called middle stone age that contribute mainly based upon flake. vinayiasacademy.com
Mesolithic age and the middle Stone Age
The term Mesolithic is combination of two Greek word that stands for meso equals 2 Meadow and lithic stands for stone thus the meaning of mesolithic is middle Stone Age this highlight the relation from paleolithic to new era . the main evidence of this stone was found from the site of sales in the year 1866. Mesolithic human life was social there all used were dog sheep for domestic use. The characteristic of this age was tools of Mesolithic era. The life of people of this age was mainly based on hunting fishing and food gathering. The evidence of this phase or age was found in India in some places like Rajasthan water Pradesh central and eastern India and also in South of River Krishna. Adam girl in mother Pradesh is the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals in the mesolithic age. Rock painting was also contributed the evidence among the mesolithic culture in this era. vinayiasacademy.com
Neolithic age
That term new lithic is combination of two words where do you is stand for gnu and lipstick stands for stone age does these two combine and make the Neolithic age India the credit of discovery of knew lithic age and the evidence of archaeological material goes to doctor Primrose. He discover many sharp stone knives of that time the famous archaeologist nude VG chilled also contribute in making the historical movement memoriable by writing a book on his experience of Neolithic era and his book named as man makes himself. This era mostly provide information that asked about how the development of agriculture and cultivation of cereals came together and that show how the people from the Stone Age transformed into the better lifestyle that were known by the people of off knew stone age. There are evidence that will found for the new Stone Age era that remark on the Bank of River bolan of Baluchistan around 7000 BC showing beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals. Crops cultivation include wheat , plum dates. Animals like cattle goat and sheep were domesticated. Subsidence pattern is mark marked by mixed farming which rested on farming herding supplemented by hunting. The two made representative of evidence site for the new stone age was found in valleys of Kashmir on the Bank of River Jhelum. Excavation of yield great number of tropical bone tools wild grains of wheat be barley bones of animals such as God sheep cattle and many more. Excavation gives indication of predominantly hunting for economy was began and later on developed into agricultural economy. In burzahom and gufkral there are pit dwelling which are circular at the top and rectangle at the bottom for protection from cold. At burzahom we have the characteristics feature of dog burial along with human grave which is a cultural feature of central asian new stone age era. Following are the some highlights of the new stone age. vinayiasacademy.com
The time span of the Neolithic Age in India was around 7,000 B.C. to 1,000 B.C. vinayiasacademy.com
The Neolithic Age was preceded by Mesolithic Age (9,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C.) and succeeded by Chalcolithic Age (c.2100 to 700 B.C.). vinayiasacademy.com
The major crops grown were ragi, horse gram, cotton, rice, wheat, and barley. The people of this age domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats. They resided in pits near a lake side and had hunting and fishing economy. vinayiasacademy.com
The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones as well as bones. They used axes, adzes, chisels, and celts.
Pottery first appeared in this age and included grey ware, black burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
The Neolithic Age is significant for its Megalithic Architecture.
The people of this period lived in circular or rectangular houses which were made from mud and reed. At some places they lived in mud-brick houses. vinayiasacademy.com
They had common rights over property and led a settled life.
The Neolithic settlements have been found in North-Western part (Such as Kashmir), Southern part (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh), North Eastern frontier (Meghalaya), and Eastern part (Bihar and Odisha) of India. vinayiasacademy.com
Some of the important Neolithic settlements are Mehrgarh (located in Baluchistan, Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir), Gufkral (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), and Utnur (Andhra Pradesh).
The oldest Neolithic settlement in the Indian Subcontinent was Mehrgarh which is located in Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan.
Jarf el Ahmar and Tell Abu Hureyra (both in Syria) were the major Neolithic sites . vinayiasacademy.com
The Neolithic Age was succeeded by the Chalcolithic Age (c.2100 to 700 B.C.) which saw the use of copper; the first metal to be used at the end of the Neolithic Age.
Agriculture: The people of Neolithic Age cultivated ragi, horse gram, cotton, rice, wheat, and barley and hence were termed as food producers. They domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
Tools: The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. They used stone hoes and digging sticks for digging the ground. The ring stones of 1-1/2 kg of weight were fixed at the ends of these digging sticks. They also used tools and weapons made of bone; found in Burzahom (Kashmir) and Chirand (Bihar).
Weapons: The people primarily used axes as weapons. The North-western part of Neolithic settlement used rectangular axes having curved cutting edge. The Southern part used axes with oval sides and pointed butt while polished stone axes with rectangular butt and shouldered hoes were use in the north-eastern part.
Housing: The people of Neolithic Age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reed. The people of Mehrgarh lived in mud-brick houses while pit-dwelling is reported from Burzahom, the Neolithic site found in Kashmir.
. Pottery: With the advent of Agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to do cooking, arrange for drinking water, and eating the finished product. That’s why pottery first appeared in the Neolithic Age. The pottery of the period was classified under grey ware, black-burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
Architecture: The Neolithic Age is significant for its Megalithic Architecture.
Technology: In the initial stage of the Neolithic Age, hand-made pottery was made but later on the foot-wheels were used to make pots.
Community Life: Neolithic people had common right over property. They led a settled life.
Geographical Location of Neolithic people
The Neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They habited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters, and the slopes of the hills since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made from stone. They inhabited northern spurs of the Vindhyas, Kashmir, South India, Eastern India, Meghalaya (north-eastern frontier of India), and Mirzapur and Allahabad districts of Uttar Pradesh. Some of the important Neolithic settlements are Mehrgarh (located in Baluchistan, Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir), Gufkral (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), and Utnur (Andhra Pradesh). Jarf el Ahmar and Tell Abu Hureyra (both in Syria) were the major Neolithic sites in Asia. vinayiasacademy.com
Developments During the Neolithic
By adopting a sedentary way of life, the Neolithic groups increased their awareness of territoriality. During the 9600-6900 BCE period in the Near East, there were also innovations in arrowheads, yet no important changes in the animals hunted were detected. However, human skeletons were found with arrowheads embedded in them and also some settlements such as Jericho were surrounded with a massive wall and ditch around this time. It seems that the evidence of this period is a testimony of inter-communal conflicts, not far from organized warfare. There were also additional innovations in stone tool production that became widespread and adopted by many groups in distant locations, which is evidence for the existence of important networks of exchange and cultural interaction. vinayiasacademy.com
The End of the Neolithic
Towards the end of the Neolithic era, copper metallurgy is introduced, which marks a transition period to the Bronze Age, sometimes referred to as the Chalcolithic or Eneolithic Era. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, which has a greater hardness than copper, better casting properties, and a lower melting point. Bronze could be used for making weapons, something that was not possible with copper, which is not hard enough to endure combat conditions. In time, bronze became the primary material for tools and weapons, and a good part of the stone technology became obsolete, signalling the end of the Neolithic and thus, of the Stone Age.
Apart from the Indus valley, some important Neolithic sites are –
Gufkral and Burzahom in Kashmir,
Mahgara, Chopani Mando, and Koldihwa in Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh, and
Chirand in Bihar. vinayiasacademy.com
The site of Koldihwa (of 6,500 B.C.) provided the earliest evidence for the domestication of rice. It is the oldest evidence of rice cultivation in any part of the world.
The agriculture in the Belan valley began around 6,500 B.C. Besides rice, cultivation of barley was also attested at Mahgara.
The radiocarbon dates of the bone remains, (from Koldihwa and Mahgara) show that cattle, sheep, and goat were domesticated in the region.
The early Neolithic settlers in Burzahom lived in pit dwellings, rather than building houses on the ground.
The settlement at Chirand in Bihar is of the later period (relatively) to Indus valley.
Small polished Neolithic stone axes have been found from Cachar Hills, Garo Hills, and Naga Hills in north-east regions of India.
The excavations at Sarutaru near Guwahati revealed shouldered Celts and round-butted axes associated with the crude cord or the basket-marked pottery. vinayiasacademy.com
The new patterns of subsistence found in south India that was almost contemporary with the Harappan culture.
Following were the important sites in southern India –
Kodekal, Utnur, Nagatjunikonda, and Palavoy in Andhra Pradesh;
Tekkalkolta, Maski, Narsipur, Sangankallu, Hallur, and Brahmagiri in Karnataka.
The Neolithic Age of southern India is dated between 2,600 and 800 B.C. It is divided into three phases as –Phase-I – No metal tool (at all);
Phase-II – It is marked with tools of copper and bronze, but in limited quantity. People have domesticated cattle, including cow, bull, sheep, and goat and also practiced some agriculture and cultivated gram, millet, and ragi. Pottery of both handmade as well as wheel-made variety was used; and
Phase-III – It is marked with the use of iron.The evidence (discussed above) leads us to draw certain broad conclusions.The earliest Neolithic settlements, in the Indian subcontinent, was first developed in the west of the Indus River. At Mehrgarh, the Neolithic culture began about 8,000 B.C. and soon it became a widespread phenomenon.People lived in mud houses; wheat and barley were cultivated; and sheep and goat were domesticated. vinayiasacademy.com
Long-distance trade for precious goods was practiced.
By 3,000 B.C., the Neolithic culture was a widespread phenomenon and covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent. vinayiasacademy.com
